When conditioning occurs due to the pairing of neutral stimulus with conditioned stimulus quizlet?

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Classical conditioning was first studied by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. In this type of learning, when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that already elicits a certain unconditioned response (UR), the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the US. The neutral stimulus then becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), and has the capacity to elicit a conditioned response (CR) that is similar or related to the UR.

In extinction, the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, and the conditioned response eventually disappears, although later it may reappear (spontaneous recovery). In higher-order conditioning, a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an already-established conditioned stimulus. In stimulus generalization, after a stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus for some response, other similar stimuli may produce the same or similar reaction. In stimulus discrimination, different responses are made to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus in some way.

Many theorists believe that what an animal or person learns in classical conditioning is not just an association between the unconditioned and conditioned stimulus, but also information conveyed by one stimulus about another. Indeed, classical conditioning appears to be an evolutionary adaptation that allows an organism to prepare for a biologically important event. Considerable evidence exists to show that a neutral stimulus does not become a CS unless it reliably signals or predicts the US.

Classical conditioning helps account for positive emotional responses to particular objects and events, typically through the pairing of a neutral stimulus (a car, for example) with a pleasurable stimulus (an attractive spokesperson, free trinkets, or cold hard cash).

John Watson showed how fears may be learned and then may be unlearned through a process of counterconditioning. Work on classical conditioning is now integrating findings on fear, learning, and biology. Using a drug (d-cycloserine) to enhance the activity of glutamate in the amygdala during exposure therapy speeds up the extinction of a phobia.

Because of evolutionary adaptations, human beings (and many other species) are biologically primed to acquire some classically conditioned responses easily, such as conditioned taste aversions. Often a single trial pairing of a stimulus with an unpleasant outcome (e.g., a meal followed by nausea) can produce aversive conditioning.

Classical conditioning can also account for reactions to medical treatments. Associating previously neutral stimuli (the color of a waiting room, for example, or the smell of disinfectant) with an unpleasant outcome (nausea from chemotherapy, pain from an injection) can lead to the stimuli themselves eliciting an aversive response.

In operant conditioning, behavior becomes more or less likely to occur depending on its consequences. Responses in operant conditioning are generally not reflexive and are more complex than in classical conditioning. Research in this area is closely associated with B. F. Skinner, who called his approach "radical behaviorism," although an early study conducted by Edward Thorndike (cats escaping a puzzle box) set the stage for some basic principles of operant conditioning.

In the Skinnerian analysis, reinforcement strengthens or increases the probability of a response, and punishment weakens or decreases the probability of a response. Reinforcers are called primary when they are naturally reinforcing because they satisfy a biological need, and are called secondary when they have acquired their ability to strengthen a response through association with other reinforcers. A similar distinction is made for punishers. In positive reinforcement, something pleasant follows a response; in negative reinforcement, something unpleasant is removed. In positive punishment, something unpleasant follows the response; in negative punishment, something pleasant is removed.

Extinction, stimulus generalization, and stimulus discrimination occur in operant conditioning as well as in classical conditioning. A discriminative stimulus signals that a response is likely to be followed by a certain type of consequence. Continuous reinforcement leads to the most rapid learning. However, intermittent (partial) reinforcement makes a response resistant to extinction (and, therefore, helps account for the persistence of superstitious rituals). Shaping is used to train behaviors with a low probability of occurring spontaneously. Reinforcers are given for successive approximations to the desired response until the desired response is achieved. However, biology places limits on what an animal or person can learn through operant conditioning, or how easily it is learned. Animals sometimes have trouble learning a task because of instinctive drift.

Operant conditioning is one of the mainstays of learning theory, and its findings and conclusions have been demonstrated repeatedly. As the sole explanatory system for why organisms do what they do, however, it is incomplete. Skinner's radical behaviorism was often misinterpreted as a cold, mechanistic view of the human condition.

Even during behaviorism's heyday, some researchers were probing the "black box" of the mind. In the 1930s, Edward Tolman studied latent learning, in which no obvious reinforcer is present during learning and a response is not expressed until later, when reinforcement does become available. What appears to be acquired in latent learning is not a specific response but rather knowledge about responses and their consequences.

The 1960s and 1970s saw the increased influence of social-cognitive theories of learning, which focus on observational learning and the role played by beliefs, interpretations of events, and other cognitions in determining behavior. Social-cognitive theorists argue that in observational learning, as in latent learning, what is acquired is knowledge rather than a specific response. Because people differ in their perceptions and beliefs, they may learn different lessons from the same event or situation.

When conditioning occurs due to the pairing of neutral stimulus with a conditioned stimulus resulting in a CS CS learned association This process is known as?

When conditioning occurs due to the pairing of a neutral stimulus with a conditioned stimulus?

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