What is the set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information?

Understanding individuals in organizations is an important consideration for all managers. A basic framework that can be used to facilitate this understanding is the psychological contractthe set of expectations held by people with respect to what they will contribute to the organization and what they expect to get in return. Organizations strive to achieve an optimal person-job fit, but this process is complicated by the existence of individual differences.

Personality is the relatively stable set of psychological and behavioral attributes that distinguish one person from another. The Big Five personality traits are agreeableness, conscientiousness, negative emotionality, extraversion, and openness. The Myers-Briggs framework can also be a useful mechanism for understanding personality. Other important traits are locus of control, self-efficacy, authoritarianism, Machiavellianism, self-esteem, and risk propensity. Emotional intelligence, a fairly new concept, may provide additional insights into personality.

Attitudes are based on emotion, knowledge, and intended behavior. Whereas personality is relatively stable, some attitudes can be formed and changed easily. Others are more constant. Job satisfaction or dissatisfaction and organizational commitment are important work-related attitudes.

Perception is the set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information about the environment. Basic perceptual processes include selective perception and stereotyping. Perception and attribution are also closely related.

Stress is an individuals response to a strong stimulus. The General Adaptation Syndrome outlines the basic stress process. Stress can be caused by task, physical, role, and interpersonal demands. Consequences of stress include organizational and individual outcomes, as well as burnout. Several things can be done to manage stress.

Creativity is the capacity to generate new ideas. Creative people tend to have certain profiles of background experiences, personal traits, and cognitive abilities. The creative process itself includes preparation, incubation, insight, and verification.

Workplace behavior is a pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness. Performance behaviors are the set of work-related behaviors that the organization expects the individual to display in order to fulfill the psychological contract. Basic withdrawal behaviors are absenteeism and turnover. Organizational citizenship refers to behavior that makes a positive overall contribution to the organization. Dysfunctional behaviors can be very harmful to an organization.

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1. Social Science
2. Psychology
3. Organizational Psychology

Terms in this set (69)

Which of the following is true of inducements?
a. They refer to what an organization provides to an individual.
b. They refer to the competencies an employee brings to an organization.
c. They refer to the total number of years an employee invests in a company.
d. They refer to the business environment factors in an organization.

They refer to what an organization provides to an individual.

Which of the following best defines person-job fit?
a. It is the overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect to what he or she will contribute to an organization and what the organization will provide in return.
b. It is the relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another.
c. It is the extent to which a person is poised, calm, resilient, and secure.
d. It is the extent to which the contributions made by an individual match the inducements offered by an organization.

d. It is the extent to which the contributions made by an individual match the inducements offered by an organization.

Which of the following is a reason for imprecise person-job fits.
a. Performance dimensions are difficult to measure in subjective ways.
b. Organizations hire new employees.
c. Both people and organizations change.
d. Employees expect a lot of favors from their managers.

c. Both people and organizations change.

Which of the following is a characteristic of extraverts?
a. They are disorganized, careless, and irresponsible.
b. They are willing to change their own ideas as a result of new information.
c. They are sociable, talkative, and assertive.
d. They are gentle, cooperative, forgiving, and understanding.

c. They are sociable, talkative, and assertive.

_____ refers to a person's rigidity of beliefs and range of interests.
a. Agreeableness
b. Conscientiousness
c. Extraversion
d. Openness

d. Openness

According to the Myers-Briggs framework, individuals of the _____ type enjoy the process and open-ended situations.
a. judging
b. perceiving
c. thinking
d. sensing

b. perceiving

_____ is an attitude that reflects the extent to which an individual is gratified by or fulfilled in his or her work.
a. Organizational engagement
b. Positive affectivity
c. Cognitive dissonance
d. Job satisfaction

d. Job satisfaction

Aiko's friends say that Aiko is always in a good mood. She is upbeat and optimistic and has an overall sense of well-being. Which of the following is true of Aiko?
a. She often experiences cognitive dissonance.
b. She has low risk propensity.
c. She has high levels of Machiavellianism.
d. She has a higher degree of positive affectivity.

d. She has a higher degree of positive affectivity.

_____ is an attitude that reflects an individual's identification with and attachment to an organization itself.
a. Organizational engagement
b. Job satisfaction
c. Cognitive dissonance
d. Organizational commitment

d. Organizational commitment

_____ is the set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information about his or her environment.
a. Awareness
b. Repression
c. Transformation
d. Perception

d. Perception

Which of the following is true of stereotyping?
a. It depends on consensus and consistency.
b. It allows us to disregard minor bits of information.
c. It is an individual's response to a strong stimulus.
d. It can be efficient in certain forms.

d. It can be efficient in certain forms

Which of the following is true of attribution?
a. It is the process of categorizing people on the basis of a single attribute.
b. It is formed around a framework of consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness.
c. It is higher in people with more negative affectivity.
d. It is the process of screening out information that one is uncomfortable with.

b. It is formed around a framework of consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness.

Which of the following is true of Type A individuals?
a. They work at a slow pace without time urgency.
b. They are less likely to experience conflict with other people.
c. They are extremely competitive and very devoted to work.
d. They are less likely to experience stress than Type B individuals.

c. They are extremely competitive and very devoted to work.

Julian is a top manager at a large pharmaceutical firm. His work requires him to make quick decisions, often with incomplete information. He is most likely to experience stress due to _____.
a. physical demands
b. task demands
c. interpersonal demands
d. role demands

b. task demands

Which of the following is an example of an interpersonal demand?
a. Ambiguity about the tasks associated with a certain role
b. Insufficient supply of stationary and other tools required to perform a task
c. The responsibility of making a critical work-related decision
d. Individuals with conflicting personalities being required to work together

d. Individuals with conflicting personalities being required to work together

_____ is a skill that allows people to see differences among situations, phenomena, or events.
a. Convergent thinking
b. Vertical thinking
c. Cross-functional thinking
d. Divergent thinking

d. Divergent thinking

Which of the following is true of the preparation stage of the creative process in business?
a. It includes the development of a product or service prototype.
b. It is the stage during which a creative person achieves a new understanding of the problem.
c. It determines the validity or truthfulness of a creative insight.
d. It usually requires formal training and education.

d. It usually requires formal training and education.

An employee at the research division of an automobile firm has an idea for a new type of alloy for the chassis of a car. A prototype of the car that uses this alloy will be developed during the _____ stage of the creative process.
a. verification
b. preparation
c. insight
d. incubation

a. verification

_____ are the total set of work-related behaviors that an organization expects an individual to display.
a. Interpersonal demands
b. Task actions
c. Performance behaviors
d. Role demands

c. Performance behaviors

Which of the following is true of turnover?
a. It can cost an organization.
b. It decreases when unemployment is low.
c. It is never desirable.
d. It has no relation to the labor market.

a. It can cost an organization

Racial harassment is an example of:
a. avoidant behavior.
b. dysfunctional behavior.
c. withdrawal behavior.
d. performance behavior.

b. dysfunctional behavior

Which of the following refers to the resources needed to do a job?
a. Motivation
b. Task design
c. Work environment
d. Ability

c. Work environment

The traditional approach to motivation:
a. assumes that work is inherently unpleasant for most people.
b. shows that employees know more about the jobs being performed than managers do.
c. assumes that the job people perform is more important than the money they earn.
d. takes a broad view of the role of monetary compensation.

a. assumes that work is inherently unpleasant for most people.

In contrast to human relations view on motivation, the human resource view:
a. assumes that contributions are valuable to both the individuals and the organizations.
b. gives workers an illusion of involvement to satisfy their social needs.
c. makes workers feel important by giving them a modicum of self-direction in carrying out all job activities.
d. believes that the illusion of contribution and participation will enhance motivation.

a. assumes that contributions are valuable to both the individuals and the organizations.

According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which of the following satisfies security needs?
a. An effective grievance system
b. A challenging job opportunity
c. A good work environment
d. An organization-sponsored lunch

a. An effective grievance system

The _____ suggests that people's needs are grouped into three possibly overlapping categories—existence, relatedness, and growth.
a. ERG theory of motivation
b. goal-setting theory
c. relatedness theory
d. two-factor theory of motivation

a. ERG theory of motivation

People with a strong need for _____ are likely to prefer a job that entails a lot of social interaction.
a. affiliation
b. security
c. achievement
d. power

a. affiliation

In the context of expectancy theory, _____ refer to the consequences of behaviors in an organizational setting, usually rewards.
a. valences
b. outcomes
c. equities
d. schisms

b. outcomes

According to equity theory, outcomes from a job include _____.
a. time
b. loyalty
c. education
d. intrinsic rewards

d. intrinsic rewards

According to the goal-setting theory, an employee is motivated to perform if his or her goals are:
a. clear and precise.
b. difficult and unattainable.
c. very easy to accomplish.
d. broad and generic in nature.

a. clear and precise

Which of the following kinds of reinforcement strengthens a desired behavior?
a. Extinction
b. Punishment
c. Negligence
d. Avoidance

d. Avoidance

Which of the following is true of the fixed-interval schedule?
a. It is appropriate for rewards based on inspections.
b. It provides incentives in the form of sales commissions.
c. It provides the least incentive for an employee's good work.
d. It is used to provide rewards after a fixed number of behaviors.

c. It provides the least incentive for an employee's good work.

Which of the following is true of the variable-ratio schedule?
a. It is difficult to use for formal rewards.
b. It gives reinforcement after a predetermined number of behaviors.
c. It uses time as the basis for reinforcement.
d. It does not provide much incentive for good work.

a. It is difficult to use for formal rewards.

Which of the following conditions must exist for empowerment to enhance organizational effectiveness?
a. An organization should be sincere in its efforts to spread autonomy to lower levels.
b. An organization should take away control to provide motivation for the employees to work harder.
c. An organization should quickly turn over power and control to its employees.
d. An organization should routinely conceal information regarding its high output.

a. An organization should be sincere in its efforts to spread autonomy to lower levels.

In _____, two part-time employees divide one full-time job.
a. telecommuting
b. job sharing
c. v-time
d. compressed work schedules

b. job sharing

_____ is a work arrangement that allows employees to work offsite, usually at home.
a. Telecommuting
b. A flexible work schedule
c. Job sharing
d. A compressed work schedule

a. Telecommuting

Which of the following is an example of an individual incentive?
a. Employee stock ownership plans
b. Scanlon plans
c. Sales commissions
d. Gainsharing programs

c. Sales commissions

Which of the following is a similarity between individual and group incentives?
a. Both tie indirectly to performance increases of employees.
b. Both are paid to the employees as they are earned.
c. Both are types of gainsharing programs.
d. Both are added to employees' base salary.

b. Both are paid to the employees as they are earned.

Through which of the following methods do senior executives traditionally receive incentive pay?
a. Stock option plans
b. Bonuses
c. Scanlon plans
d. Salaries

b. Bonuses

_____ is the ability to affect the behavior of others.
a. Free will
b. Anomie
c. Power
d. Synergy

c. Power

_____ is the power to force compliance by means of psychological, emotional, or physical threat.
a. Coercive power
b. Expert power
c. Referent power
d. Reward power

a. Coercive power

Which of the following is true of referent power?
a. It is grounded in objective facets of organizational life.
b. It refers to the power to force compliance by means of a threat.
c. It is based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma.
d. It refers to the power to give or withhold rewards.

c. It is based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma.

Managers using job-centered leader behavior:
a. attempt to establish a supportive climate.
b. ensure that employees are satisfied with their jobs.
c. show concern for subordinates.
d. show keen interest in performance.

d. show keen interest in performance.

A manager who displays consideration behavior is most likely to:
a. encourage formal communication.
b. place importance on leader-subordinate roles.
c. show concern for subordinates.
d. dictate how tasks should be performed.

c. show concern for subordinates.

Unlike the Michigan state researchers, the Ohio state researchers:
a. argued that employee-centered behavior was effective.
b. did not assume that behaviors were independent of each other.
c. determined that situational influences in firms were negligible.
d. did not interpret leader behavior as being one-dimensional.

d. did not interpret leader behavior as being one-dimensional.

The LPC (least-preferred coworker) theory classifies leaders into two types based on whether they:
a. make ethical decisions under pressure or not.
b. display moral conduct or not.
c. use reward power or legitimate power.
d. are task oriented or relationship oriented.

d. are task oriented or relationship oriented.

_____ predicts what kinds of situations call for different degrees of group participation.
a. The least-preferred coworker theory
b. The path-goal theory of leadership
c. Maslow's hierarchy of needs approach
d. Vroom's decision tree approach

d. Vroom's decision tree approach

Which of the following situational approaches to leadership stresses the importance of variable relationships between supervisors and each of their subordinates?
a. The Path-goal theory
b. The leader-member exchange (LMX) model
c. Vroom's decision tree approach
d. The least preferred coworker (LPC) theory

b. The leader-member exchange (LMX) model

Which of the following is a task characteristic that may substitute for leadership?
a. The need for independence
b. The availability of feedback
c. Professional orientation
d. Time pressure

b. The availability of feedback

Which of the following is true of charismatic leaders?
a. They succeed only in turbulent environments.
b. They do not make any mistakes.
c. They set high expectations.
d. They have magnified shortcomings.

c. They set high expectations.

_____ goes beyond ordinary expectations by transmitting a sense of mission, stimulating learning experiences, and inspiring new ways of thinking.
a. Autocratic leadership
b. Transformational leadership
c. Strategic leadership
d. Expert leadership

b. Transformational leadership

Strategic leadership:
a. is used to achieve a superior alignment between a firm and the environment.
b. explicitly relates leadership to the role of first-line management .
c. relates leadership solely to the role of lower-level management.
d. is limited to inspiring support and acceptance through charisma.

a. is used to achieve a superior alignment between a firm and the environment.

Which of the following should be a focus of a strategic leader?
a. Inspiring new ways of thinking
b. Energizing others through a demonstration of personal confidence
c. Working toward the future alignment of a firm and the environment
d. Doing anything that contributes to the success of a firm without concern for ethics

c. Working toward the future alignment of a firm and the environment

Unlike Japan, businesses in the United States are:
a. more focused on moral leadership.
b. based more on individualism.
c. more focused on ethnic leadership.
d. based more on collectivism.

b. based more on individualism.

_____ occurs when a manager offers to give something to someone else in return for that individual's support.
a. Creation of an obligation
b. Persuasion
c. Inducement
d. Coercion

c. Inducement

A manager who threatens to withhold support or rewards is using _____ as a political tactic.
a. persuasion
b. synergy
c. inducement
d. coercion

d. coercion

Political behavior in organizations can be managed by:
a. providing subordinates with feedback.
b. reducing the autonomy of subordinates.
c. giving superiors additional power.
d. increasing competition among managers for resources.

a. providing subordinates with feedback.

A _____ is created by an organization to accomplish a relatively narrow range of purposes within a stated or implied time horizon.

a. task group
b. management team
c. functional group
d. virtual team

a. task group

Which of the following best defines a team?

a. It is a group comprised of people who come together briefly for a briefing and then disperse.
b. It is a permanent group of people created by an organization to accomplish a number of organizational purposes with an unspecified time horizon.
c. It is a group of workers that functions as a unit, often with little or no supervision, to carry out work-related tasks, functions, and activities.
d. It is a group of individuals who are seated together within an organizational workspace.

c. It is a group of workers that functions as a unit, often with little or no supervision, to carry out work-related tasks, functions, and activities.

Which of the following is a reason people choose to form informal or interest groups?

a. They lack similar social standings.
b. They are attracted to one another.
c. They do not have similar economic standings.
d. They are dependent on each other.

b. They are attracted to one another.

Which of the following best describes intrarole conflict?

a. It results from a discrepancy between the role requirements and an individual's personal values, attitudes, and needs.
b. It occurs when a person gets incompatible demands from different sources within the context of the same role.
c. It exists when the expectations of two or more roles are incompatible.
d. It occurs when a single source sends clear but contradictory messages.

b. It occurs when a person gets incompatible demands from different sources within the context of the same role.

_____ is generalized norm conformity that occurs as a person makes the transition from being an outsider to being an insider in an organization.

a. Norming
b. Conflict
c. Socialization
d. Cohesiveness

c. Socialization

Roy, a manager at a technology firm, is in charge of a team that is responsible for releasing a new product within a specified timeline. Which of the following should Roy do in order to increase the cohesiveness of his team?

a. He should emphasize competition among employees.
b. He should increase the size of the team.
c. He should increase intragroup competition.
d. He should allow opportunities for interaction.

d. He should allow opportunities for interaction.

Complete absence of conflict in an organization may result in _____.

a. hostility
b. creativity
c. complacency
d. high performance

c. complacency

Conflict between two or more individuals is an example of _____.

a. intergroup conflict
b. interpersonal conflict
c. interorganizational conflict
d. environmental conflict

b. interpersonal conflict

Which of the following is true of interorganizational conflict?

a. Conflict arises between two or more individuals.
b. Conflict arises between two or more organizational groups.
c. Conflict arises between one organization and another.
d. Conflict arises between individuals and organizations.

c. Conflict arises between one organization and another.

Which of the following managers is using a method that will effectively control conflict?

a. Lydia, who abolishes a number of unnecessary corporate policies
b. Robert, who hires new employees who present a new perspective to a problem
c. Alia, who expands the resource base so that funds can be distributed equitably
d. Gregor, who convinces two conflicting employees to reach a compromise

c. Alia, who expands the resource base so that funds can be distributed equitably

Which of the following is true of the cognitive approach?

a. It recognizes that negotiators often depart from perfect rationality during negotiation.
b. It was developed using mathematical models to predict the outcome of negotiation situations.
c. It requires the ability to describe all possible outcomes in every situation.
d. It concentrates on the personality traits of the negotiators.

a. It recognizes that negotiators often depart from perfect rationality during negotiation.

Which of the following is a method of stimulating conflict?

a. Increasing competition among individuals and teams
b. Matching personalities and work habits of employees
c. Enhancing coordination of interdependence
d. Bringing conflicting parties together to address conflict

a. Increasing competition among individuals and teams

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