Which one of the following is the best example of the Premack Principle in action?

What is learning? Learning is usually defined as a change in an individual caused by experience. Changes caused by development (such as growing taller) are not instances of learning. Neither are characteristics of individuals that are present at birth (such as reflexes and responses to hunger or pain). However, humans do so much learning from the day of their birth (and some say earlier) that learning and development are inseparably linked. The problem educators face is not how to get students to learn; students are already engaged in learning every waking moment. Rather, it is how to help students learn particular information, skills, and concepts that will be useful in adult life.

The systematic study of learning is relatively new. Not until the late nineteenth century was learning studied in a scientific manner. Using techniques borrowed from the physical sciences, researchers began conducting experiments to understand how people and animals learn. Two of the most important early researchers were Ivan Pavlov (Classical Conditioning) and Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect. Among later researchers, B. F. Skinner was important for his studies of the relationship between behavior and consequences (Behaviorism).

What are some principles of behavioral learning? Principles of behavioral learning include the role of consequences, reinforcers, punishers, immediacy of consequences, shaping, extinction, schedules of reinforcement, maintenance, and the role of antecedents.

THE PREMACK PRINCIPLE One important principle of behavior is that we can promote less-desired (low-strength) activities by linking them to more-desired activities. In other words, access to something desirable is made contingent on doing something less desirable. For example, a teacher might say, "As soon as you finish your work, you may go outside" or "Clean up your art project, and then I will read you a story." These are examples of the Premack Principle.

Consequences that weaken behavior are called punishers. Note that there is the same catch in the definition of punishment as in the definition of reinforcement: If an apparently unpleasant consequence does not reduce the frequency of the behavior it follows, it is not necessarily a punisher. For example, some students like being sent to the principal's office or out to the hail, because it releases them from the classroom, which they see as an unpleasant situation. As with reinforcers, the effectiveness of a punisher cannot be assumed but must be demonstrated. Punishment can take two primary forms.

The principle of extinction holds that when reinforcement for a previously learned behavior is withdrawn, the behavior fades away. Does this mean that teachers must reinforce students' behaviors indefinitely or they will disappear? Not necessarily. For example, students may initially require frequent reinforcement for behaviors that lead to reading. However, once they can read, they have a skill that unlocks the entire world of written language, a world that is highly reinforcing to most students. After a certain point, reinforcement for reading may no longer be necessary, because the content of reading material itself maintains the behavior.

Some Antecedent stimuli, events that precede a behavior, are also known as cues, because they inform us what behavior will be reinforced and/or what behavior will be punished. Other antecedent stimuli are discrimination stimuli (knowing when a behavior is likely to be reinforced and generalizations (a transfer of behaviors learned under one set of conditions to another.)

How has social learning theory contributed to our understanding of human learning? Social learning theory is a major outgrowth of the behavioral learning theory tradition. Developed by Albert Bandura, social learning theory accepts most of the principles of behavioral theories but focuses to a much greater degree on the effects of cues on behavior and on internal mental processes, emphasizing the effects of thought on action and action on thought.

Meichenbaum developed a strategy (called self-regulation) in which students are trained to say to themselves, "What is my problem? What is my plan? Am I using my plan? How did I do?" This strategy has also been used to reduce disruptive behavior of students at many grade levels. For example, poor readers have been taught to ask themselves questions as they read and to summarize paragraphs to make sure they comprehend text.

Behavioral learning theories are limited in scope, with strengths and weaknesses. This fact remains because these theories are based almost entirely on observable learning and observable behavior. It seems that social learning theories tighten the gap between cognitive theories and behavioral theories.

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Which of the following statements is most accurate regarding the reinforcement-as-activity approach (i.e. the Premack principle)?

Possible Answers:

Reinforcement only occurs when existing activities and desired behaviors are relatively equal in probability

Lower-probability activities reinforce higher-probability activities

Higher-probability activities reinforce lower-probability activities

Children’s preferences for reinforcement activities tend to be consistent and universal  

Correct answer:

Higher-probability activities reinforce lower-probability activities

Explanation:

When using the Premack principle, it is important to consider activities that are highly preferred by the individual. What is the child’s favorite thing to do? Play video games, or play basketball? Whichever behavior is preferred tends to have a higher probability of occurring naturally and that activity would be used as reinforcement for a less-preferred (i.e. lower-probability) activity like cleaning up one’s bedroom.

An annoying beeping noise is playing in a rat's cage. When it presses a lever, the noise goes away. Eventually, the rat begins pressing the lever often, even when the beeping is not playing. This is an example of which of the following aspects of operant conditioning? 

Possible Answers:

Chaining

Extinction

Positive reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

Punishment

Correct answer:

Negative reinforcement

Explanation:

Negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, such as pressing a lever, by removing an aversive—unpleasant—stimulus (e.g. the annoying beep) when that behavior occurs. Using the current example, positive reinforcement would be a food pellet appearing when the lever was pressed. Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment, but punishment decreases the likelihood of some behavior. It is important to note that both positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of that behavior.

Whereas operant conditioning primarily involves voluntary, spontaneous responses, ______________ involves mostly involuntary reflexes and visceral responses.

Possible Answers:

Classical conditioning

None of the above

Observational learning

Modeling

Correct answer:

Classical conditioning

Explanation:

Classical conditioning usually involves involuntary reflexes or visceral responses (think about the salivation of Pavlov's dogs). Observational learning such as modeling involves voluntary responses (e.g., a child mimicking a parent's gestures).

You get in your car and start backing out of the driveway. Upon moving, the car starts to beep, signaling that you have not buckled your seat belt. The sound is so annoying that you quickly buckle your seat belt in an attempt to make the beeping stop. The beeping is an example of which of the following?

Possible Answers:

Negative punishment 

Negative reinforcement 

Continuous reinforcement 

Positive reinforcement 

Positive punishment 

Correct answer:

Negative reinforcement 

Explanation:

The beeping is considered to be negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is the type of reinforcement that occurs when an unpleasant stimuli is removed upon performing a behavior. Reinforcement always increases a behavior. In this case, the unpleasant stimulus is the car beeping and the behavior is buckling the seat belt. Positive reinforcement, on the other hand, is the application of a reward upon performing a behavior. Again, reinforcement (either positive or negative) always increases behavior. Both negative and positive punishments decrease behavior. Negative punishment is taking away something good upon performing a behavior (e.g. getting TV taken away due to a bad test grade). Positive punishment is the application of an unpleasant punishment upon performing a behavior (e.g. speeding on the freeway will result in a ticket).

Sandy is an aspiring singer. Even though she loves to sing, she also experiences severe stage fright before and during a performance. Sometimes when she is feeling so overwhelmed or nervous before a performance, she will decide to cancel the show because of her anxiety. Lately, even when she sees a stage or a microphone, she begins to feel panicked and notices her breathing and heart rate increase. 

Sandy's actions (i.e. canceling a show when she is feeling anxious) relieve an uncomfortable feeling; therefore, they are considered to be which of the following types of behaviors. 

Possible Answers:

Negatively punished

Positively punished

Negatively reinforced

Positively reinforced

Correct answer:

Negatively reinforced

Explanation:

Behavior can be shaped through operant conditioning through the use of rewards and punishments. "Negative reinforcement "occurs when you remove or relieve a negative feeling. In this case, Sandy's behavior of canceling the show is being negatively reinforced because it removes the feelings of anxiety. 

A researcher is testing learning on rats. He decided to reward rats with a piece of food for pressing a lever. Once the rats learned the association between the lever and reward, the researcher decided that he wants to maximize the number of lever presses and give out the least number of food pieces. In order to achieve this, what type of reinforcement schedule should the researcher use?

Possible Answers:

Ratio reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

Interval reinforcement

Positive reinforcement

Correct answer:

Ratio reinforcement

Explanation:

Reinforcement schedules can be fixed or variable and ratio or interval. In general, "ratio reinforcement" schedules are most resistant to extinction compared to interval schedules. On the other hand, "negative reinforcement" and "positive reinforcement" are not reinforcement schedules.

A slot machine uses which type of reinforcement schedule?

Possible Answers:

Variable-ratio

Fixed-ratio

Fixed-interval

Variable-interval

Correct answer:

Variable-ratio

Explanation:

A "variable-ratio" reinforcement schedule delivers a reinforcer after a variable number of non-reinforced responses. In the same way, slot machines give a reinforcement (i.e. winning) after a variable number of losses. This type of reinforcement schedule elicits a higher resistance to extinction with high steady rates of responding making it very lucrative for the casino industry.

During an operant conditioning experiment, a researcher provides a rat with a shock every time that the rat demonstrates a particular behavior. This type of operant conditioning is referred to as which of the following?

Possible Answers:

Positive punishment

Negative reinforcement

Negative punishment

Positive reinforcement

Correct answer:

Positive punishment

Explanation:

"Positive punishment" occurs when a stimulus (e.g. shock) is provided and weakens a response. "Negative punishment" occurs when a stimulus (often a pleasant one) is removed and this weakens a response. "Positive reinforcement" is when a stimulus (often a pleasant one) is provided and strengthens a response. Last, "negative reinforcement" occurs when a stimulus (often an unpleasant one) is removed and this strengthens a response.

During an operant conditioning experiment, a researcher provides a rat with a sugar pellet every time that the rat demonstrates a particular behavior. This type of operant conditioning is referred to as which of the following?

Possible Answers:

Positive punishment

Positive reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

Negative punishment

Correct answer:

Positive reinforcement

Explanation:

"Positive reinforcement" is when a stimulus (e.g. sugar pellet) is provided that strengthens a response. "Negative reinforcement" occurs when a stimulus (often an unpleasant one) is removed and this strengthens a response. "Positive punishment occurs" when a stimulus (often an unpleasant one) is provided and this weakens a response. Last, "negative punishment" occurs when a stimulus (often a pleasant one) is removed and this weakens a response.

Marc goes to his job and performs his duties assigned to him. He receives his paycheck every two weeks. In terms of his paycheck, which of the following schedules describes the reinforcement schedule of Marc's job experience?

Possible Answers:

Variable-interval

Variable-shaping

Variable-ratio

Fixed-ratio

Fixed-interval

Correct answer:

Fixed-interval

Explanation:

Marc is on a "fixed-interval" reinforcement schedule. This is because he is reinforced after a certain fixed amount of time has gone by. It is not "fixed-ratio," because it does not depend on his behaviors emitted. It also is not "variable-interval," because there is no varying time in between his reinforcement: it's every two weeks. It is not "variable-ratio" because he is not being reinforced for a certain amount of behaviors and the time does not vary in between reinforcement (i.e. paycheck delivery). Last,"variable-shaping" is not a real reinforcement schedule. 

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What best illustrates the Premack principle?

Which of the following is an example of vicarious punishment?

Which of the following is the best example of shaping?

Which is the best example of conditional knowledge?