ENCOMIENDA SYSTEMENCOMIENDA SYSTEM established social and racial relations as the basis for the economic and political order in the Spanish areas of the Americas. Derived from the Spanish verb encomendar (to entrust a mission for someone to fulfill), the mission of the encomienda was to care for and protect indigenous people by awarding part of their labor and produce to men who had served the crown—encomenderos. The encomendero was to indoctrinate his wards into the Catholic faith while acculturating them to European standards. In return, the encomendero was authorized to collect tribute and receive personal services from his wards. Show The encomienda had its roots in the Spanish Reconquista (reconquest) of the Iberian Peninsula from the eighth to the fifteenth centuries. After the conquest of Granada in 1492, the Spanish crown parceled out lands as encomiendas to soldiers who were, in turn, to Christianize the Moors. Then, in 1499, a former governor of Granada introduced the encomienda to Hispaniola in the Americas, and soon all the participants in the conquests of the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, and South America expected an encomienda as reward for their services to the crown. For example, in Mexico in 1522, the conquistador Hernán Cortés directed that his encomenderos were to receive tribute and household services from the conquered Indians in their encomiendas in return for providing food, clothing, care, and religious instruction to the Indians. Women and boys under the age of twelve were exempt from personal service and Indians were only to serve for twenty days, with at least thirty days between service requirements. Royal fears of the encomenderos' feudal power and continuing conflict between groups of conquerors in Guatemala and particularly Peru, led to the end of personal service to the encomenderos in 1546 under the New Laws of the Indies. Encomenderos were still allowed to collect tribute from their grants but could pass them on only to the next generation. Population decline among the Indians in the later sixteenth century further weakened the encomienda by reducing the amount of Indian labor available, which prevented the encomienda from producing enough to satisfy the economic and social aspirations of the encomenderos. Encomiendas often became a trap for early settlers, resulting in a third generation reduced to penury. However, in some central areas of the Spanish empire, especially Mexico and Peru, an encomienda sometimes became the basis for a family fortune. Some encomenderos in these regions permitted the Indians of their encomienda to sell their produce in the market reduced by population decline, accepting instead the Indians' tribute in gold currency. Encomenderos then invested this capital in other enterprises, land above all, contributing to the rise of great estates in the seventeenth century. In peripheral parts of the empire such as Paraguay, Chile, and Colombia, the encomienda survived in some fashion until the end of the colonial period. In what is now the United States, in New Mexico, Juan de Oñate granted over sixty encomiendas to reward his men and provide for military defense around 1600. These far northern encomiendas did not survive the 1680 revolt of the Pueblo Indians. By helping to establish race and ethnicity as the primary determinants of economic and political power, the encomienda system had long-reaching effects in the history of the Americas. BIBLIOGRAPHYCalero, Luis F. Chiefdoms Under Siege: Spain's Rule and Native Adaptation in the Southern Colombian Andes, 1535–1700. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1997. Kramer, Wendy. Encomienda Politics in Early Colonial Guatemala, 1524–1544: Dividing the Spoils. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1994. Ramírez, Susan E. Provincial Patriarchs: Land Tenure and the Economics of Power in Colonial Peru. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986. Simpson, Lesley Byrd. The Encomienda in New Spain: The Beginning of Spanish Mexico. Rev. ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966. Lance R.Blyth See alsoColonial Administration, Spanish; Indian Policy, Colonial; New Mexico ; Pueblo Revolt; Spanish Borderlands. Early efforts at settlement in North America in the sixteenth century were unsuccessful.
b. False The resulting hierarchy included two ranks of Creoles, an upper rank of gentes decentes, or "respectable people," and a lower rank of _________, or "popular people."
b. gentes de pueblo c. gentes trabajadoras d. gentes desposeídas As colonial Brazil grew, the Portuguese created a council in Lisbon to deal with all New World appointments and established a high court for all judicial affairs in the city of _________ in northern Brazil.
b. Bahia c. Ouro Preto d. Olinda The three most important Catholic orders in charge of the Spanish missionary crusade of conversion, humanization and education of the Native American population in the New World were the Franciscans, the Dominicans, and later the _________.
b. Carmelites c. Mercedarians d. Hieronymites The original English colonies in North America went from being merely English to being part of a "British" empire after the _________.
b. English Civil War c. English-Scottish union of 1707 d. Nine Years' War In English North America, only the agriculturally rich mid-Atlantic colonies and the southern plantations were able to grow significant amounts of marketable produce, while living conditions remained generally poor elsewhere away from urban areas. This all changed in the eighteenth century with the emergence of large port cities which enabled merchants to ship in textiles and iron wares from Europe in return for timber at relatively cheap rates. The largest of these port cities was _________, followed closely by New York.
b. Savannah c. Newport, Rhode Island d. Philadelphia The _________, a primary target of English privateers, carried silver from Mexico to China annually and returned laden with Chinese silks, porcelain and lacquer ware.
b. Old Spanish Trail c. Acapulco-Manila treasure fleet d. Spanish Main Among the gifts of submission presented to Cortés on the Mexican mainland was _________, the daughter of an Aztec lord and someone who would go on to play a crucial role in securing the success of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.
b. Llancueitl c. Xiuhcuetzin d. Malinche Among the first English philosophers influenced by the new Copernican and Galileian teachings, which had replaced Aristotelianism in Europe, were James Harrington and _________,
b. Gilbert Ryle c. William of Ockham d. Roger Bacon The sale of these colonial offices ultimately led to all but oneof the following:
b. a decline in the competence level of office holders c. the emergence of a Creole elite able to bend the Spanish administration increasingly to its will d. the decentralization of the decision-making processes rom Quebec, the French embarked on a exploratory and fur-trading mission south into the Great Lakes region, the Mississippi valley and the Mississippi delta, claiming these lands as part of their Canada-Mississippi- _________ territory.
b. Georgia c. Carolina d. Alabama Both the Spanish and Portuguese Crowns relied heavily on the Catholic Church for their rule over their respective New World possessions. A strong motive driving the early colonial church as well as society in general was their shared belief in the imminent Second Coming of Jesus, a belief which represented one of the original inspirations for the voyages of discovery and the driving philosophical credo behind the conquest and crusade to baptize and convert the masses of Native Americans to Catholicism.
b. False c. Newport, Rhode Island d. Philadelphia Self-representation was highly encouraged in the fiscal-military Spanish state, quite in contrast to the later English North American colonies.
b. False Secular American constitutionalism, as represented later by the English North American colonies' Founding Fathers, did not rely at all on Harrington’s philosophical views.
b. False c. 50,000 d. 800,000 The mythical and illusive Kingdom of _________, or ‘golden city,’ became the stuff of legend which would fuel the quest for material riches in the New World in the minds of many a conquistador after the conquests of the Aztec and Inca Empires, though it was never found..
b. Paititi c. El Dorado d. Norumbega Spain abolished the encomiendas of the early conquistadors as a way of preventing the rise of aristocratic estates similar to those in Spain.
b. False Between _________, it is estimated that Spanish America produced 150,000 tons of silver (including gold converted into silver weight), corresponding roughly to 85% of the world production and underlying the extraordinary role of American silver in the money economies of Spain, Europe, the Middle East and Asia, especially China.
b. 1550–1750 c. 1500–1550 d. 1550–1650 In order to support the mining centers and administrative cities, the Spanish colonial government encouraged the development of agricultural estates or _________.
b. paradores c. estancias d. haciendas Upon Cortés' arrival at the city of _________, on November 2, 1519, Emperor Moctezuma II was in a quandary over how to deal with these invaders whose depredations neither his tributaries nor his enemies had been able to stop.
b. Xochimilco c. Tenochtitlán d. Teotihuacán The revivalist _________of the 1730s and 1740s used a literal understanding of Protestantism as one of its main foundations and received its main impulse from the work of the brothers John and Charles Wesley, English Methodist preachers who made quite an impact during their tour of Georgia in 1735.
b. "Great Awareness" c. "Great Awakening" d. "Great Order" The great majority of the indigenous of population of Brazil lived in tribally organized temporary or permanent villages based primarily on all but one of the following:
b. hunting c. foraging d. fishing Among the English colonists in North America, the first to demand participation in the colonial administration were _________.
b. Virginia tobacco growers c. Georgia cotton growers d. Pennsylvania wheat growers The relative slow pace of Portuguese conquest in Brazil, initially driven by the search for the prized brazilwood, compared to the meteoric success the Spaniards enjoyed over the vast Aztec and Inca empires, initially driven by their search for precious metals, can be explained by all but one of the following:
b. The Spaniards' use of sophisticated firearms and cannons played a decisive role in combat, especially in close encounters, demonstrating the crucial role of gunpowder technology in bringing down the Aztec and Inca empires c. Both the Aztec and Inca empires were relatively recent creations in which the hierarchical power structure was still divided and contested by enemy factions, thus allowing the Spaniards to form tactical alliances among the subject population and manipulate rival groups against each other d. European-introduced diseases took a devastating toll among the indigenous population ahead of actual military invasion, decimating the locals and thus greatly disrupting and undermining their effectiveness in repelling the Spanish onslaught _________was the best-known advocate against the cruelty of the land-labor grant system.
b. Christopher Columbus c. Bartolomé de las Casas d. Alonso Ortíz A crucial factor which aided in the fall of the Incan Empire to the Spaniards was the protracted war of succession between _________and his half-brother Huascar.
b. Pachacuti c. Túpac Amaru d. Atahualpa Just as in the Spanish colonies to the south, smallpox decimated the indigenous population of North America. In New England alone, of the 100,000 or so Native Americans in 1600, only about _________remained in 1675.
b. 50,000 c. 10,000 d. 25,000 Among the many Native American allies who aided Cortés in the Conquest of the Aztec Empire were the _________, sworn enemies of the Aztecs, were most notable in their crucial aid to the Spaniards.
b. Toltecs c. Tarascans d. Yucatecs In the early seventeenth century, the French, English and Dutch started occupying smaller unclaimed Caribbean islands which they then used to launch raids on Spanish colonies in order to disrupt Spain’s monopoly on shipping between Europe and its Caribbean possessions, eventually taking some of these Spanish outposts. Most notable among these conquered Spanish outposts was Jamaica, taken by the English, and _________, taken by the French.
b. western Hispaniola c. Puerto Rico d. Hispaniola As part of the complex hierarchical administrative system established by the Spaniards in the New World, the municipal councils, or _________, were set up in towns and cities to serve as elective bodies under the supervision of appointed inspectors.
b. cabildos c. repartimientos d. audiencias The role, function and cult of Catholic saints as mediators between humans and God was one which took the indigenous population the longest to become acculturated to.
b. False The Spaniards' primary justification for their conquest of the New World was:
b. the search for mineral wealth c. territorial expansion d. scientific exploration Both Christian religiosity and religious freedom were hallmarks of Puritan-dominated English settlements in North America, with Christian "splinter" groups a frequent occurrence, while various English and European versions of Protestantism and _________held sway.
b. Judaism c. Catholicism d. Anglicanism _________were American-born descendants of European settlers, primarily of Iberian ancestry.
b. Sambos c. Mestizos d. Creoles Aside from the monumental work done by the Catholic orders in helping to preserve Native American customs, rituals and traditions in the form of translated manuscripts, historical chronicles, and scholarly treatises on a variety of subjects, a number Native American chroniclers, historians and commentators on the early modern state and society are similarly noteworthy.
b. False Harvard College, founded in 1626 was the first institution of higher learning in North America devoted to teaching the "correct" balanced Calvinist Protestantism. Becoming a University a few years later, it served as an early outpost of the so-called _________of Copernican astronomy and Galileian physics in the Americas.
b. New Dogma c. New Science d. New Law When the Portuguese conquered Brazil, the indigenous population was estimated to be nearly _________inhabitants.
b. 5 million c. 500,000 d. 10 million The English and French colonies of North America, lacking a sustainable native industry at first, moved further south in order to develop an agricultural base following the plantation system for growing _________, thus joining the Spanish and Portuguese exploitation of America’s sub-tropical agricultural resources.
b. potatoes c. oranges d. wheat The Seven Years' War in the New World was ultimately won by the superiority and tactical maneuvering of _________over the French forces.
b. Great Britain's Indian allies c. the British Army d. the British navy The earliest settlement in the northeastern coast of North America was:
b. Jamestown c. Plymouth d. Boston In the 1540s, in an effort to transition away from the encomienda system, Spain introduced rotating assignments, or _________, which established an obligation by villagers to send stipulated numbers of people as laborers to a contractor who had the right to exploit a mine or other labor-intensive enterprise and who would then pay these laborers minimal wages and bind them through debt peonage to their businesses.
b. audiencias c. repartimientos d. aduanas In the middle of the seventeenth century, after being pushed back by the Jesuits toward the west and north, many of these "pioneers" then switched from the profitable slave trade to prospecting for _________in the Minas Gerais region after 1690, the first inland region of the colony to attract settlers.
b. emeralds c. gold d. topaz The pattern of settlement in North America in the seventeenth century followed the trail of French, English and Dutch _________who grew their own food and traded with the local natives for furs.
b. bounty hunters c. protestant missionaries d. merchant investors The Habsburg Wars placed a tremendous strain on Spain’s revenue base forcing the Crown into repeated bankruptcy and ultimately leading to the sale of _________in the New World to the highest bidder.
b. ecclesiastical offices c. military offices d. administrative offices The Spaniards would not take full control of the Inca Empire until________.
b. 1535 c. 1600 d. 1550 Beginning in the mid-sixteenth century, easy looting for gold and silver was replaced by a search for the mines from where these precious metals came, including all but one of the following regions:
b. Mexico c. Chile d. Bolivia Which of the following is nota characteristic of the Spanish conquest and colonization of the Americas?
b. the Spaniards succeeded in exploiting internal weaknesses in the natives' power structure c. the Spaniards significantly outnumbered the native population d. a three-tiered society developed made up of European immigrants, Native Americans and Black slaves imported from Africa to make up for the loss of human lives caused by European disease among the indigenous labor force After the War, the British gained:
b. all of Canada c. all of France's holdings in India d. all of France's islands in the South Pacific As opposed to the role of education in the Spanish colonies, colonial Brazil did not offer higher education prior to 1800, which is why the earliest universities in colonial Latin America were all in Spanish America. Among these, the oldest were those of Santo Domingo, Mexico City and _________.
b. Lima c. Bogotá d. Quito The exchange of plants, animals, and diseases between the Americas and the rest of the world is known as the _________.
b. Columbian Exchange c. Louisiana Purchase Exchange d. Indo-European Exchange The oldest city on the American mainland was the coastal city of _________, north of the Yucatán Peninsula, founded by Hernán Cortés as a base for further inland exploration.
b. Veracruz c. Tampico d. Campeche The Spaniards were able to transition from the establishment of trade post settlements toward a full-blown system of conquest by usurping the traditional entitlements of the Taíno chiefs to the labor of their tribesmen and establishing land-labor grants or _________entitling the land grantee the use of forced indigenous or imported slave labor on this land for the purpose of exploiting its agricultural and mineral resources.
b. encomiendas c. cabildos d. audiencias The Spaniards pioneered silver mining innovations, such as the _________method, which facilitated extraction through the use of mercury.
b. "magistral" c. "patio" d. "mita" Jesuits converted the indigenous population, whom they transported to villages administered by the order. Colonial cities and Jesuits repeatedly clashed over the slave raids of the _________, or "pioneers/slave traders," in village territories.
b. entradas c. mocambos d. quilombos Harrington, the creator of the innovative concept of _________, a form of thought according to which the state supports basic religious principles, without espousing a particular denomination, was, along with Locke, greatly influenced by the New World experience in their constitutional treatises.
b. Civil Order c. Civil Disobedience d. Civil Theology At about the same time, _________, a relative of Cortés, conceived of a plan to conquer the Andean empire of the Incas after hearing rumors about an empire of gold and silver to the south.
b. Francisco Pizarro c. Pedro de Valdivia d. Juan Ponce de León After the demise of the Spanish Habsburg dynasty, and in an effort to regain control over Spain's American possessions, the new French-descended Bourbons put into practice a series of reforms aimed at _________.
b. seeking new sources of mineral wealth c. extending the power of Spanish Church officials in the New World d. improving Spain’s naval connections and administrative control in the New World The Spanish economic pattern of New World settlement was originally driven by the extraction of mineral wealth, first gold from the Caribbean and then silver from Mexico and Peru, later moving to agricultural exploitation, while the Portuguese proceeded in the reverse order, first pioneering the growing of sugar on plantations and only later developing mining interests.
b. False In 1680, the Portuguese finally prevailed and put an end to Native American Slavery, almost a century and a half before the Spaniards.
b. False The primary mining centers in colonial Spanish America were _______in southeastern Peru (today Bolivia) and Zacatecas and Guanajuato in northern Mexico.
b. Sucre c. Oruro d. Potosí After a crisis hit sugar production in colonial Brazil in 1680-1700, largely due to Dutch competition, a shift toward mineral extraction took place following the discovery of inland gold mines. In the eighteenth century, Brazil would produce a total of about _________tons of gold, proving that mineral extraction was just as important for the Portuguese as it was for the Spanish.
b. 500,000 c. 50,000 d. 800,000 Ethnic combinations of Europeans and Native Americans and Europeans and Africans were collectively called castas, or "castes," a term originating out of a desire on the part of Iberian and Creole settlers to draw distinctions among degrees of racial mixture in hopes of counterbalancing the vast masses of Native Americans and Africans. The two most important castes were mestizos (Spanish)/ mestiços (Portuguese), born of Iberian fathers and Native American mothers, and _________, born of Iberian fathers and Black mothers.
b. sambos c. mullatos d. castizos What were some of the problems with the encomienda system?A Troublesome System
It also swiftly led to abuses: encomenderos made unreasonable demands of the Native Peruvians who lived on their lands, working them excessively or demanding tribute of crops that could not be grown on the land. These problems appeared quickly.
Why did the encomienda system fail?The Spanish crown, against the forced labor of indigenous people, passed the Laws of Burgos in an attempt to reform the system. The attempt failed, as encomenderos ignored the laws and revolted against any attempt to weaken their power of the their laborers.
How did the encomienda system affect native society?Encomenderos are also mandated through these grants to convert Natives to Christianity and endorse Spanish as their primary language. Native peoples are forced to engage in hard labor and subjected to torture, extreme abuse, and, in some cases, death if they resist (Nies, 1996).
What was the encomienda system and how did it work?Encomienda (roughly translated: trustee) was a formal system of forced labor in Spanish colonies in Latin America and the Philippines, intended to encourage conquest and colonization. Under this system, leaders of the indigenous community paid tribute to colonists with food, cloth, minerals, or by providing laborers.
|
Which of the following was a consequence of the encomienda system established by the law above?
zusammenhängende Posts
Urheberrechte © © 2024 ketiadaan Inc.
