Raise criteria in increments small enough so that the subject always has a realistic chance of reinforcement. Show
Train one aspect of any particular behavior at a time. Don't try to shape for two criteria simultaneously. During shaping, put the current level of response on a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement before adding or raising the criteria. When introducing a new criterion, or aspect of the behavioral skill, temporarily relax the old ones. Stay ahead of your subject: Plan your shaping program completely so that if the subject makes sudden progress, you are aware of what to reinforce next. Don't change trainers in midstream. You can have several trainers per trainee, but stick to one shaper per behavior. If one shaping procedure is not eliciting progress, find another. There are as many ways to get behavior as there are trainers to think them up. Don't interrupt a training session gratuitously; that constitutes a punishment. If behavior deteriorates, "Go back to kindergarten." Quickly review the whole shaping process with a series of easily earned reinforcers. End each session on a high note, if possible, but in any case quit while you're ahead. Recommended textbook solutions
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or anxiety, when experiencing a stimulus that initially accompanied a pleasant or painful event Classical conditioning in the brain -Conditioning an eyeblink requires the cerebellum stimulus substitution theory stimulus substitution means that a neural bond or association forms in the brain between the neutral stimulus (tone) and unconditioned stimulus (food) Contiguity theory classical conditioning occurs because two stimuli (neutral stimulus and unconditional stimulus) are paired close together in time (contiguous) Cognitive perspective -says that an organism learns a predictable relationship between two stimuli such that the occurrence of one stimulus (neutral stimulus) predicts the occurrence of another (unconditioned stimulus) Conditioning little albert Can emotional responses be conditioned? Results of conditioning little albert -Albert did startle/cry in response to the white rat after classical conditioning acquisition phase -This response lasted about a week, at which point it underwent extinction -Generalization -Discrimination Classical conditioning and racial prejudice -Prejudice is an unfair, biased, or intolerant attitude toward another group of people -Conditioning prejudice Unconditioning prejudice -A conditioned response to a person of another race may generalize, creating prejudice -To
minimize this, some strategies include Examples of classical conditioning -Fainting at the sight of blood Systematic desensitization -Procedure based on classical conditioning steps of systematic desensitization -Learn to relax Very effective at treating a variety of fearful and anxiety-producing behavior Thorndikes law of effect -behaviors followed by positive consequences are strengthened Skinner's Operant Conditioning -Operant response: can be modified by its consequences and is a meaningful, easily measured unit of ongoing behavior Skinner box -a small enclosure that is automated to record an animal's bar presses and deliver food pellets as a consequence Three factors in operant conditioning of a rat -a hungry rat is more willing to eat the food reward Operant conditioning//Shaping -Facing the bar Operant Conditioning//Immediate reinforcement -Reinforcer should follow immediately after the desired behavior Operant conditioning//Superstitious behavior Behavior that increases in frequency because its occurrence is accidentally paired with the delivery of a reinforcer Examples of operant conditioning -Toilet training operant conditioning continued -goal: increase or decrease the rate of some response classical conditioning continued -goal: create a new response to a neutral stimulus Consequences are the results of actions Reinforcement a consequence that occurs after a behavior and increases the chance that the behavior will occur again Punishment consequence that occurs after a behavior; decreases the chance that the behavior will occur again Principles used to treat pica -behavioral disorder that involves eating inedible objects or unhealthy substances positive reinforcement refers to the presentation of a stimulus that increases the probability a behavior will occur again negative reinforcement refers to an aversive stimulus whose removal increases the likelihood that the preceding response will occur again Reinforcers A stimulus that increases the likelihood that the response preceding it will occur again Primary reinforcers stimulus such as food, water, or sex; innately satisfying and requires no learning on the part of the subject to become pleasurable Secondary reinforcers stimulus that has acquired its reinforcing power through experience; secondary reinforcers are learned, such as by being paired with primary reinforcers or other secondary reinforcers Positive punishment presenting an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus after a response negative punishment -removing
a reinforcing stimulus after a response Skinner's Contribution -Schedule of reinforcement -Measuring ongoing behavior continuous reinforcement every occurrence of the operant response results in delivery of the reinforcer partial reinforcement refers to a situation in which responding is reinforced only some of the time Fixed ratio schedule a reinforcer occurs only after a fixed number of responses are made by the subject Fixed interval schedule a reinforcer occurs after the first response that occurs after a fixed interval of time variable-ratio schedule a reinforcer is delivered after an average number of correct responses has occurred Variable interval schedule reinforcer occurs after the first correct response after an average amount of time has passed Operant Generalization Animal or person emits the same response to similar stimuli Classical generalization Tendency for a stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response similar to the conditioned response operant discrimination -A response is emitted in the presence of a stimulus is reinforced and not in the presence of unreinforced stimuli Classical Discrimination Tendency for some stimuli, but not others, to elicit conditioned response Operant Extinction reduction in operant response when it is no longer followed by a reinforcer Classical extinction reduction in response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer followed by the unconditioned stimulus Operant Spontaneous Recovery Temporary recovery in the rate of responding classical spontaneous recovery temporary occurrence of the conditioned response in the presence of the conditioned stimulus
Cognitive learning: attention and memory Says that learning can occur through observation or imitation and may not involve external rewards or require a person to perform any observable behaviors Cognitive learning: Viewpoints -Against: B. F. Skinner ("As far as I'm concerned, cognitive science is the creationism (downfall) of psychology") social cognitive learning Results from watching, imitating, and modeling; doesn't require the observer to perform any observable behavior or receive any observable reward Bobo doll experiment -Watch
an adult model behave aggressively with the doll versus no watching of this behavior Learning versus performance -Variation on the first Bobo Doll: watch an adult receiving varying consequences for hitting the doll learning/performance distinction Learning may occur but may not always be measured by, or immediately evident in, performance Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory -Emphasizes the importance of observation, imitation, and self-reward in the development and learning of social skills, personal interactions, and many other behaviors Processes in social cognitive learning -Attention Insight Learning -a mental process marked by the sudden and unexpected solution to a problem Biological Factor innate tendencies or predispositions that may either facilitate or inhibit certain kinds of learning Imprinting studied by ethologists -Imprinting: inherited tendencies or responses that are displayed by newborn animals when they encounter certain stimuli in their environment Prepared learning -Preparedness is the innate or biological tendency of animals to recognize, attend to, and store certain cues over others Relational and physical aggression in the media -Participants watched an aggressive (physical vs. relational) vs. non-aggressive film Suzuki method relies on similar principles to Banduras -Attention Bahavior modification -Treatment or therapy that changes or modifies undesirable behaviors by using principles of learning based on operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and social cognitive learning Autism -marked by poor development in social
relationships Behavior modification and autism -Target behavior to change: Increase eye contact contingency management Systematic reinforcement of desired behaviors and withholding of reinforcement (or punishment) of undesired behaviors postive punishment:Spanking
-Immediately stops undesired behavior negative punishment: time out Fewer undesirable side effects than spanking memory active system that allows people to retain information over time Information processing model The ability to retain information over time involves three processes: encoding, storing, and retrieving encoding refers to making mental representations of information so that it can be placed into memory storage process of placing encoded information into relatively permanent mental storage for later recall retrieving process of getting or recalling information that has been placed into short- or long-term storage Sensory memory Initial process that receives and holds environmental information in its raw form for a brief period of time, from an
instant to several seconds short term memory Process that can hold only a limited amount of information (an average of seven items) for a short period of time (from 2 to 30 seconds)
long-term memory Process of storing almost unlimited amounts of information over long periods of time three stages of memory 1.Encoding Iconic memory Form of sensory memory that
automatically holds visual information for about a quarter of a second or more; as soon as you shift your attention, the information disappears echoic memory -Form of sensory memory that holds auditory information for 1 to 2 seconds Functions of sensory memory Prevents being overwhelmed Gives decision time Provides stability, playback, and recognition short term memory (working memory) Process of holding a limited amount of information (an average of seven items) for a limited period of time (2 to 30 seconds) Working memory -More
recent understanding of short-term memory Short Term memory: Limited duration -Maintenance rehearsal Short term memory: limited capacity -Interference Short term memory: chunking Combining separate items of information into a larger unit, or chunk, and then remembering these chunks rather than individual items Example: Daniel Tammet's amazing memory is in part due to the way synesthesia promotes chunking functions of short term memory attending-selectively attend to relevant information and disregard everything else rehearsing-allows you to hold information for a short period of time until you decide what to do with it storing-helps store or encode information in long-term memory Long term memory: storing Sensory, short-term, and long-term memory are not things or places, but interacting processes Long term memory Process of storing almost unlimited amounts of information over long periods of time with the potential of retrieving, or remembering, such information in the future Retrieval Process of selecting information from long-term memory and transferring it back into short-term memory Features of long term memory -Large capacity and relatively permanent Long term memory: Primacy effect better recall, or improvement in retention of information, presented at the beginning of a body of information Primacy effect seems to result from information being successfully encoded and stored into long-term memory due to more rehearsal time than information later in the list Long term memory: recency effect better recall, or improvement in retention of information, presented at the end of a body of information Recency effect seems to result from information still being in short-term memory at the time of recall Long term memory: Serial position effect -better recall of information presented at the beginning and end of a body of information rather than in the middle Long term memory: Declarative memory -involves memories for facts or events, such as scenes, stories, words, conversations, faces, or daily events Two types of declarative memory semantic and episodic Semantic memory -type of declarative memory that involves knowledge of facts, concepts, words, definitions, and language rules episodic memory type of declarative memory that involves knowledge of specific events, personal experiences (episodes), or activities, such as naming or describing favorite restaurants, movies, songs, habits, or hobbies Long term memory: Procedural or nondeclarative memory -involves memories for motor skills (playing tennis), some cognitive skills (learning to read), and emotional behaviors learned through classical conditioning (fear of spiders) -is a form of implicit memory Memories of emotional events -McGaugh's study of the role of epinephrine and norepinephrine in formation of emotional memories -These hormones create tiny molecular changes that help brain cells form memories Memories of amnesia patients -Amnesia is temporary or permanent loss of memory that may occur after a blow or damage to the brain or after disease, general anesthesia, certain drugs, or severe psychological stress Encoding the process of transferring information from short-term to long-term memory by paying attention to it, repeating or rehearsing it, or forming new memories Automatic and effortful encoding Automatic encoding transfer of information from short- to long-term memory without effort and usually without any awareness Effortful encoding transfer of information from short- to long-term memory by working hard to rehearse the information or by making associations between new and old information Maintenance encoding simply repeating or rehearsing information rather than forming any new associations Elaborative rehearsal using effort to actively make meaningful associations between new information that you wish to remember and old or familiar information already stored in long-term memory levels of processing theory Theory says that remembering depends on how information is encoded Information encoded at a shallow level results in poor recall Deeper and deepest processing: encode by making new association, resulting in better recall Repressed memory -repression is a process by which the mind pushes a memory of some threatening or traumatic event deep into the unconscious -once in the unconscious, the repressed memory cannot be retrieved at will and may remain there until something releases it and the person remembers it Some therapists believe that especially traumatic experiences are likely to be repressed (i.e., forgotten), although there is no scientific evidence for this Therapists role in recovered memories -Believe that repressed memories need suggestion to release them -Loftus' research raises the question that therapists may actually be implanting false memories rather than releasing repressed ones Implanting false memories Numerous studies show that a false suggestion can grow into a vivid, detailed, personal memory Accuracy of recovered memories -Accuracy of a memory is established by outside corroborating evidence -Memories recovered outside of therapy can be corroborated 37% of the time -None of the memories recovered inside of therapy could be corroborated Loftus questions the accuracy of recovered memories on the basis of a large body of evidence United States versus Africa -United States emphasizes a written tradition, while Africa emphasizes an oral tradition -These traditions influence how people best encode and remember information Oral tradition Photographic memory Occurs in adults; ability to form sharp, detailed visual images after examining a picture or page for a short period of time and to recall the entire image at a later date Extraordinary episodic memory The case of Jill Price—she can't forget any of her life events since the age of 14 Super memory for faces Superrecognizers can easily recognize someone they met in passing years later, making them excellent eyewitnesses (where normal memory may be inaccurate) Flashbulb Memories Vivid recollections, usually in great detail, of dramatic or emotionally charged incidents that are of interest to the person Encoded effortlessly and may last for long periods of time Application: Unusual memories Although flashbulb memories feel accurate, research has found numerous inconsistencies between people's reports of flashbulb events given one week versus three years after the event Current feelings get projected onto the memory, but feelings have changed over time The secretion of hormones during the emotional "flashbulb" event may have something to do with the long-lasting nature of these memories Most memories are more impressions than actual pictures recall Retrieving previously learned information without the aid of, or with very few external cues recognition Identifying previously learned information with the help of more external cues network theory of memory organization -We store related ideas in separate categories, or files, called nodes and create links among them Associations Linking of nodes or categories together by making associations between new and old, previously stored information Network Thousands of interconnected nodes form a huge cognitive network for arranging and storing files Nodes memory files that contain related information organized around a specific topic or category network hierarchy -the arrangement of nodes or memory files in a certain order Early memories Earliest that people in different cultures can recall personal memories averages 3.5 years old Unfamiliar and uninteresting Forgetting curve measures the amount of previously learned information that subjects can recall or recognize Familiar and interesting Remembering is partly related to how familiar or interesting the information is forgetting Inability to retrieve, recall, or recognize information that was stored or is still stored in long-term memory repression according to Sigmund Freud, repression is a mental process that automatically hides emotionally threatening or anxiety-producing information in the unconscious (from which repressed memories can't be recalled voluntarily, but something may cause them to enter consciousness at a later time) Reasons for forgetting poor retrieval cues/poor encoding Interference Amnesia Decay Retrieval cues -mental
reminders that we create by forming vivid mental images or associations between new information and information we already know Interference -common reason for forgetting Decay -Memory traces, which are physical changes in the brain that represent the memory form Amnesia may be temporary or permanent loss of memory that may occur after a blow or damage to the brain or after disease, general anesthesia, certain drugs, or severe psychological trauma proactive interference occurs when old information (learned earlier) blocks or disrupts the remembering of related new information (learned later) retroactive interference occurs when new information (learned later) blocks or disrupts the retrieval of related old information (learned earlier) State dependent learning -Finding it easier to recall information when in the same emotional state as when originally encoding
it Cortex -short-term memories Amygdala: emotional memories the amygdala, located in the tip of the temporal lobe, receives input from all the senses and is associated with emotional memory Hippocampus: Transferring Memories transfers words, facts, and personal events from short-term memory into permanent long-term memory Brain: Memory Model
-Cortex stores both long-term and short-term memories Neural assemblies groups of interconnected neurons whose activation allows information or stimuli to be recognized and held briefly and temporarily in short-term memory long-term potentiation (LTP) -refers to change in the structure and function of neurons after they've been repeatedly stimulated Forgetting unwanted long term memories Reduced activity in amygdala and hippocampus leads to people forgetting their unwanted memories Mnemonic methods improve encoding and create better retrieval cues by forming vivid associations/images to improve recall Method of loci create visual associations between already memorized places and new items to be memorized Peg method create associations between number-word rhymes and items to be memorized Euro-Americans versus Asians -Episodic memory involves knowledge of specific events, personal experiences, or activities Recalling sexual history -Rosenbaum surveyed students two times, a year apart, about their sexual histories eyewitness testimony Refers to recalling or recognizing a suspect observed during a potentially very disruptive and distracting emotional situation that may have interfered with accurate remembering misinformation effect Misleading or false information changes a person's memory for the actual event Source misattribution -Memory error that results when a person has difficulty deciding which of two sources a
memory came from Cognitive interview -Technique for questioning people, such as eyewitnesses Which of the following consequences increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur in the future?Reinforcer. A behavior (operant response) is sometimes more likely to occur in the future as a result of the consequences that follow that behavior. Events that increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future are called reinforcers.
What is a consequence of behavior that increases the likelihood that a response will occur?Reinforcement means you are increasing a behavior, and punishment means you are decreasing a behavior. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, and punishment can also be positive or negative. All reinforcers (positive or negative) increase the likelihood of a behavioral response.
What increases the likelihood that a behavior will happen again?Negative Reinforcement. The goal of both positive and negative reinforcement is to increase the likelihood that a behavior will occur again in the future.
Is the removal of a stimulus that increases the likelihood of that response occurring again quizlet?aversive (unpleasant) stimulus whose removal increases the likelihood that the preceding response will occur again. stimulus that increases the likelihood that the response preceding it will occur again.
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Which of the following consequences increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur in the future quizlet?
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