Chapter 1Chapter 1: Early Colonization and Conflict, 1607-1689Chapter 1 discusses how colonization in seventeenth-century North America brought people from widely disparate cultures and societies into close proximity. In a few cases, colonial and native groups coexisted peacefully and adapted to one another, establishing mutually beneficial relationships. In other cases, competition over land and trade fueled violence. It was in these instances that two different cultures met, interacted, and fought. Indians married Western technology to their traditional low-intensity combat, while European colonists from England, France, Spain, and the Netherlands were stymied by native tactics, leading them to build fortifications, use indigenous allies, and pursue operations that wreaked destruction unheard of in indigenous warfare. Show
Over the course of the seventeenth century, as settlers and Indians further interacted, and fought both against and with each other, their military styles altered. Colonists developed tactics and operations to fight a foe that did not engage in European-style pitched battles, often doing so by employing native allies. Indian tactical and operational practices did not change as much, but became married to Western technology, particularly muskets. Assisted by such weapons, warriors at times inflicted levels of killing and destruction beyond what had been typical for native warfare, spurred in part by settlers’ examples. After giving some consideration to examples involving non-English settlement, as well as the Beaver Wars, this chapter will focus on military experiences and conflict in the Chesapeake and New England during the seventeenth century. By examining these areas, students will learn about Native American and European approaches to warfare prior to colonization, and demonstrate how military practices changed as a result of cross-cultural contact. Chapter 1 Glossarybastion- A projection on trace italienne fortresses that enabled defenders to fire into the flanks of approaching soldiers. enfilade fire- The type of fire directed against attacking soldiers, specifically when using a bastion that allows defenders to fire down the length of fortress defenses into the flank of the enemy. Anglo-Dutch Wars- A series of three commercial conflicts in the seventeenth century (1652-54, 1664-67, and 1672-74), between the English and Dutch. Mostly naval conflicts, the second war saw the English take the Dutch colony of New Netherland, becoming New York under English rule. commissions- An English method of raising military forces. In times of need the Crown issued commissions to individuals who would then recruit volunteers from towns and the countryside, usually with the commission holder becoming the commander of the new unit. trainbands- A sixteenth-century English militia unit. These trained bands formed the basis of the defense forces in the American colonies, with the adult male population membership in the militia more widespread than in England. Virginia Company of London- Founders of Jamestown in 1607, the first English settlement in America. As a commercial enterprise, the Virginia Company expected the settlers of Jamestown to find riches and lucrative trade resources. Powhatan Confederacy- Native American bands and groups of about 14,000 in the Chesapeake region headed by Chief Powhatan. The confederacy interacted with the English settlers of Jamestown peacefully at first, trading with them, but relations soured in 1609 with the First Anglo-Powhatan War. First Anglo-Powhatan War- (1610-1614), fighting between English settlers from the Jamestown area and Chief Powhatan’s Confederacy, initiated when colonists began treating Native Americans harshly. Most notably, natives besieged Jamestown from November 1609 to May 1610, known as the “starving time.” Disease and famine cut the colonist population in half. Jamestown- Site of the first English settlement in 1607 by the Virginia Company of London. starving time- (November 1609--May 1610). As part of the First Anglo-Powhatan War, Native Americans of the Powhatan Confederacy besieged the English settlement at Jamestown, Virginia, ultimately causing the death of half of the English settlers from famine and disease. feedfights- A colonial American tactic during the seventeenth-century that either took or destroyed Indian food sources, thus denying unfriendly Native Americans crucial supplies. Lawes Divine, Morall and Martiale- The strict and coercive legal codes of English settlers at Jamestown, Virginia. Resembling martial standards in Europe, the rules outlined harsh punishment for various crimes, including insubordination, fraternization and provocation of natives, and insufficient hygiene standards. Opechancanough- (1554-1646), Brother and successor of Native American Chief Powhatan, organizer of the 1622 Massacre that killed more than 300 English settlers throughout Virginia. 1622 Massacre- The killing of over 300 English settlers throughout Virginia on March 22, 1622, including women and children. Masterminded by Chief Opechancanough in a bid to force the settlers out of the region, the massacre claimed more than 25% of the colony’s population and saw the survivors flee to settlements along the James River that were similarly harassed. Sir William Berkeley- (1605-1677), Governor of the English colony of Virginia from 1641 to 1652 and again from 1660 to 1677. His policy of emphasizing defensive rather than offensive measures against Native Americans in large measure led to Bacon’s Rebellion. Fort Piscataway- An English fort on the Potomac River. Bacon’s Rebellion- A clash between colonists and the colonial government of Virginia in 1676. Beginning as a series of unauthorized military expeditions by Virginia colonists in 1676 led by Nathaniel Bacon, fellow colonists shared his frustration over the colonial government’s seemingly unwillingness to protect settlements from Indian attack. Colonial governor Sir William Berkeley led a series of military actions against Bacon and his army that caused the rebellion’s collapse in 1677. Nathaniel Bacon- (1647-1676), The leader of Bacon’s Rebellion, a series of unauthorized military actions against Native Americans in the colony of Virginia in 1676 that led to confrontation between Bacon’s men and the colonial government. Massasoit- (1581-1661), Native American leader of the Wampanoag nation and ally of the English colonists at Plymouth, Massachusetts. Wampanoags- a Native American group against whom English colonists fought King Philip’s War from 1675 to 1678. Massachusetts Bay- The location of a largely Puritan English colony beginning in 1628. Narragansetts- One of the two largest groups of Native Americans in southern New England. Tensions between the Narragansetts, rival tribes like the Pequots, and European colonists erupted into on-and-off again fighting throughout the seventeenth century. Pequots- A Native American tribe from what is now southeastern Connecticut. Puritan English insecurities about whether the Pequots were friendly or not, largely the result of the killing of an English sea captain on the Connecticut River, led to the Pequot War of 1636-37. John Endecott- (1601-1664), The first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Company. An expedition of 90 men led by Endecott in August 1636 led to the destructive Pequot War. Pequot War- (1636-1637) A war between the Pequot tribe and Puritan English colonists in New England. The result of English assumptions about perceived Pequot hostility, vicious extirpative warfare nearly essentially destroyed the Pequots. Connecticut River/Connecticut colony- The sight of Massachusetts Bay settlements founded by English colonists beginning in 1636. Indian raids on the colony as part of the Pequot War led colonists to respond with offensive war in May 1637 that resulted in the massacre of an Indian settlement on the Mystic River. John Mason- (ca.1600-1672), The leader of an armed force of ninety Puritan English settlers who, along with Indian allies, attacked a Pequot settlement on May 26, 1637 on the Mystic River in southeast Connecticut and massacred a few hundred Pequots, including men, women, and children. Uncas- (ca. 1588- ca.1683), Native American leader of the Mohegan tribe who allied with Puritan English colonists in Connecticut, namely during the Mystic campaign of May 1637. Mohegans- Native American tribe from present-day Connecticut who allied with English colonists in New England. Fighting alongside the Englishmen against rival Indian groups, the Mohegans also acted as guides and provided reconnaissance, developing close relations with Puritans. Mystic- Sight of the May 1637 massacre of a few hundred Native Americans from the Pequot Tribe of present-day Connecticut. Led by John Mason, an armed force of ninety Puritan English settlers alongside Mohegan allies surrounded the Pequot settlement and massacred almost all the inhabitants. Treaty of Hartford- A 1638 document that stipulated Pequot refugees displaced after the devastating Pequot War would adopt their hosts’ identity rather than identify any longer as Pequot. praying towns- Seventeenth-century English missionary settlements in New England. As a way to convert Native Americans to Christianity, colonists offered property to natives who would adopt Western lifestyles, methods, and religion. Metacom/King Philip- (ca. 1639-1676), Leader of the Wampanoag tribe of New England during the late seventeenth-century. King Philip’s War- (1675-75), A war between Puritan English colonists and the Wampanoag tribe, and one of the most devastating conflicts in New England’s history. The fighting left a dozen English villages destroyed, 800 to 1,000 colonists killed, and one-quarter of the Indian population dead and others sold into slavery. Notably, the degree of violence inflicted by Indian warriors was greater than previous conflicts, and their ferocity resembled a more European approach. garrison houses- Homes built by New England colonists in the seventeenth-century with thick walls and gun ports to protect against Indian attacks. Great Swamp Fight- A 1675 Puritan English winter campaign in New England during King Philip’s War. Colonial militia along with Indian allies targeted Narragansett homes and fortifications, leaving upwards of 1,000 men, women, and children without shelter or supplies at the cost of 200 colonial casualties. Beaver Wars– A series of ongoing wars in the seventeenth century between the Iroquois Confederacy and other Native American peoples, later the Canadian French as well. Stemmed in part from efforts to control the fur trade in the St. Lawrence River region and into the Ohio River Valley, also saw the spread of firearms among native peoples. Chapter 1: Early Colonization and Conflict, 1607-1689Cave, Alfred A. The Pequot War.
Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996. Gleach, Frederic W. Powhatan’s World and Colonial Virginia: A Conflict of Cultures.
Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997. Leach, Douglas Edward.
Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip’s War. New York: Macmillan, 1958. Malone, Patrick M. The Skulking Way of War: Technology and Tactics among the New England Indians. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991. Mandell, Daniel R. King Philip’s War: Colonial Expansion, Native Resistance, and the End of Indian Sovereignty.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010. Parker, Geoffrey. The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500-1800. Second Edition. New York: Cambridge University Press,
1996. Richter, Daniel K. The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization. Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press, 1992. Shea, William L. The Virginia Militia in the
Seventeenth Century. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1983. Steele, Ian K. Warpaths: Invasions of North America. New York: Oxford University Press,
1994. Zelner, Kyle. A Rabble in Arms: Massachusetts Towns and Militiamen during King Philip's War. New York: New York University Press, 2009. Chapter 1: Early Colonization and Conflict, 1607–1689Chet, Guy. Conquering the American Wilderness: The Triumph of European Warfare in Colonial Northeast. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003. Drake, James David. King Philip's War: Civil War in New England, 1675–1676. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999. Ferling, John E. A Wilderness of Miseries: War and Warriors in Early America. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980. Struggle for a Continent: The Wars of Early America. Arlington Heights, IL: Harlan Davidson, 1993. Higginbotham, Don. “The Early American Way of War: Reconnaissance and Appraisal.”William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd. ser., 44, no. 2. (April, 1987): 230–273. Lee, Wayne E. “Early American Ways of War: A New Reconnaissance, 1600–1815.”Historical Journal 44, no. 1 (2001): 269–289. Lepore, Jill. The Name of War: King Philip's War and the Origins of American Identity. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998. McConnell, Michael N. Army and Empire: /pitish Soldiers on the American Frontier, 1758–1775. Lincoln: University of Ne/paska Press, 2004. Oliphant, John. Peace and War on the Anglo-Cherokee Frontier, 1756–63. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001. Richter, Daniel. Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992. Salisbury, Neal. Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the Making of New England, 1500–1643. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982. Selesky, Harold E. War and Society in Colonial Connecticut. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990. Webb, Stephen Saunders. 1676, The End of American Independence. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984. Chapter 1: 1607-1689Site: George Percy’s A Trewe Relacyon Site: National Park Service, Historic Jamestowne Site: National Park Service’s A Study of Virginia
Indians and Jamestown https://www.nps.gov/jame/learn/historyculture/a-short-history-of-jamestown.htm Site: Virtual Jamestown Site: Pilgrim Hall Museum Site: The Society of Colonial Wars in the State of Connecticut Site:
The Society of Colonial Wars’ Bibliography Site:
University of Nebraska-Lincoln Electronic Texts in American Studies Site: University of Nebraska-Lincoln Electronic Texts in American Studies Site: University of Nebraska-Lincoln Electronic Texts in American Studies Site: University of Nebraska-Lincoln Electronic Texts in American Studies Site: Battlefields of the Pequot War Chapter 2Chapter 2: Wars Imperial & Regional, 1689-1763Chapter 2 will focus on the numerous seventeenth-century North American conflicts that natives and colonists waged, often stemming from regional tensions but increasingly because of outside influences. Starting in 1689, European wars had spilled across the Atlantic Ocean. Hostilities between Western European states precipitated wars between their American colonies – and this direction reversed in some mid-eighteenth century conflicts. These imperial contests pitted New France against New York and New England, and southern British colonies against Spanish Florida. The last of these wars, the Seven Years War or the French & Indian War, ended in 1763 with Great Britain dominating the continent. Amidst these broader struggles, local tensions provoked some regional hostilities between Indians and colonists. Even imperial wars in North America often became a number of simultaneous conflicts prosecuted in different areas. Indian groups played crucial roles in all these campaigns, and low-intensity conflict of raids and ambushes typical of earlier seventeenth-century hostilities was common. However, both Britain and France dispatched sizeable regular forces across the Atlantic during the French and Indian War. As a result, conventional, high-intensity operations played a much greater role in this conflict, and British victories in these campaigns ultimately led the France to abandon its colonies in mainland North America. This British success, however, contained the seeds of future conflict. London’s solutions to pay off its war debt while simultaneously deploying large numbers of troops and warships around the world produced alarm and consternation among its colonists, ultimately leading to the American Revolution. In this chapter, students will learn about late-seventeenth century developments that led to wars between European states and their American colonies from 1689 to 1763. It will cover not only the regional conflicts between particular native peoples and colonies but also the imperial wars in which New France fought against northern British colonies and the imperial wars in which Spanish Florida fought against British colonies in the south. Throughout is the theme of the changing proportion of low-intensity to high-intensity warfare in North America, and the roles played by Indian warriors, colonial forces, and regular European troops. Chapter 2 GlossaryKing William’s War- (1689-1697), The North American theater of a larger war in Europe, War of the League of Augsburg, between France and Britain. King William’s War pitted the Europeans’ colonial territories against one another along with their various Indian allies. Queen Anne’s War- (1702-1713), The North American theater of a larger war in Europe, Queen Anne’s War, between France, Spain, and England and their various Indian allies. War of Jenkins’ Ear- (1739-1748), A conflict between Spain and Great Britain over their colonial holdings in North America. Fighting on the southern Atlantic seaboard, in Florida and Georgia. King George’s War- (1744-1748), The North American theater of a larger war in Europe, the War of Austrian Succession. King George’s War pitted New France against Britain’s colonial holdings, along with their respective Indian allies. French and Indian War- (1754-1763), The North American theater of a larger war between European belligerents, the Seven Years’ War. French and British colonial forces employed various Indian allies for most of the war, and with the fall of Montreal the British established their superior presence in North America over the French. Seven Years’ War- (1754-1763), The larger war that occurred concurrently with the French and Indian War. With fighting occurring across the globe and between a substantial number of belligerents, some have considered it to be truly the first world war. Tuscarora War- (1711-1715), A conflict in colonial North Carolina between European settlers populating and the Tuscarora peoples. Yamasee War- (1715-1717), A conflict in colonial South Carolina between British settlers and their one-time allies, the Yamasee, including other bands of native peoples allied with the Yamasee. The Glorious Revolution- The turnover of power in England during 1688-1699. Angered by the policies of King James II, members of Parliament arranged to have Protestants William III of Orange-Nassau and his wife, Mary II of England, seize power form the Catholic king. William III & Mary II- (1650-1702; 1662-1694), Joint rulers of England who took power during the Glorious Revolution. Leisler’s Rebellion- A 1689 revolt in New York led by merchant and German immigrant Jacob Leisler influenced by the turnover of power in England due to the Glorious Revolution. It ended in 1691 when King William III appointed William Sloughter governor, who tried and executed Leisler. Treaty of Ryswick- The 1697 treaty that ended the War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697). Comte de Frontenac- (1622-1698), Governor of the colony of New France from 1672 to 1682 and again from 1689 to 1698. As part of King William’s War, in 1689 Frontenac ordered offensive campaigns against the English to defend his colony. A year later he launched attacks against the northern English settlements of Schenectady, Salmon Falls, and Falmouth. Schenectady- New York settlement attacked and destroyed by the French with Indian allies in February 1690 during King William’s War. Salmon Falls- A New Hampshire settlement attacked and destroyed in March 1690 by French and Indian forces as part of King William’s War. Falmouth- An English settlement in Main attacked by French and Indian forces in May 1690 as part of King William’s War. Port Royal- A French port in French Acadia, or present-day Nova Scotia, sacked by Sir William Phips. French Acadia/Nova Scotia- A French-held territory during King William’s War and the target of attempts by New England in 1690. Sir William Phips- (1650-1694), A British commander and governor of Massachusetts Bay who had successfully sacked Port Royal in French Acadia. He also headed a failed campaign in 1690 during King William’s War against the French-held Quebec. Covenant Chain- A series of treaties in the 1670s between New York governor Sir Edmund Andros and the Five Nations. Abenaki- A French-allied Native American people from New England. Beginning in 1690 New England colonists continually fought the Abenaki on the frontier. Benjamin Church- (ca. 1639-1718), The leader of the first group of rangers in America, known for emulating Indian tactics to use against natives in New England during King Williams War and Queen Anne’s War. St. Augustine- The primary Spanish settlement in Florida through the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, and the sight of the oldest fort in America, Castillo de San Marcos. The importance of the settlement induced South Carolina governor James Moore to attempt to capture the town in 1702 during Queen Anne’s War, which ultimately failed. Charlestown- South Carolina city and the primary British settlement in the American south. During Queen Anne’s War; target of a failed Franco-Spanish campaign in 1706. Deerfield- A Massachusetts town and the target of a February 29, 1704 raid by Frenchmen and their Indian allies during Queen Anne’s War. It represented the nexus of French and native interests during the imperial wars. While the Indians acquired plunder and captives and the French were satisfied that they forced New Englanders to focus on frontier defense and operations against Indians rather than against Canada. Sir Hovenden Walker- The British commander of a 1711 campaign against Quebec during Queen Anne’s War. The manpower amassed during the operation had been unparalleled in America to that point, and the failed campaign helped convince Britain to seek peace with France and Spain. Treaty of Utrecht- A treaty that ended Queen Anne’s War in 1713. Louisbourg- France’s major naval base in North America, located on Cape Breton Island which controlled approaches to the St. Lawrence River. During King George’s War (1744-1748) Louisbourg became an important base of operations for the French, but New England colonial forces capitalized on French tactical mistakes and captured it in June 1745. James Moore- The governor of South Carolina who mounted an expedition against Spanish Saint Augustine in 1702 during Queen Anne’s War. Castillo de San Marcos- The Spanish fort at Saint Augustine, Florida, and the oldest standing fortification in North America. Castillo de San Marcos was the target of a failed campaign by English forces in 1702 during Queen Anne’s War. Yamasees- A confederation of Native Americans and allies of the colony of South Carolina during Queen Anne’s War, namely the failed campaign to take Saint Augustine and the Spanish fort Castillo de San Marcos. Creek- Native peoples of what is now Georgia and Alabama who allied with the English against the Spanish during Queen Anne’s War. Louisiana- A French colony established in 1699. The Treaty of Paris that ended the French & Indian War forced France to hand Louisiana over to Spain. Pensacola- A Florida town and the location of a key Spanish fort built in 1698. Apalachee- Native American people indigenous to Florida who were devastated by slaving raids of the English and their Indian allies during Queen Anne’s War. Choctaw- Indian allies of the Louisiana French and the target of English slaving raids throughout the eighteenth century. Tuscarora- Native Americans who dwelled in North Carolina. The group suffered greatly during the Tuscarora War of 1711-13, losing many killed and enslaved by the English and their allies, whereupon many Tuscarora migrated north to New York to become the Sixth Nation of the Iroquois. Dummer’s War- (1722-1727), A conflict between the eastern Abenaki and New England colonists. Natchez War- (1729-33) A conflict between the Natchzez who resided in modern-day Mississippi and French colonists in Louisiana. French retaliation for the Natchez destroying colonial settlements and killing or capturing hundres of white settlers and black slaves caused many Natchez to disperse and live with other native peoples. Chickasaw- Native group of the American southeast, namely around present-day Mississippi and Alabama, who became embroiled in conflict with French colonists from 1736 to 1740 as a result of the Natchez War. Georgia- An American state, founded as a colony in 1732 by James Ogelthorpe in the hopes of providing economic opportunities for poor Englishman, but also as a buffer between Spanish Florida and South Carolina. James Oglethorpe- (1696-1785), Former British army officer and the founder of the colony of Georgia in 1732. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle- The 1748 treaty that ended the War of Austrian Succession in Austria. In North America it restored all territories to their original owners, meaning the British colonists begrudgingly returned the fortress of Louisbourg to the French, an ostensible security threat in the eyes of the British in New England. St. Simon’s island- The location of British forts on the coast of Georgia. Cartagena- A Spanish port that served Spanish treasure fleets moving South American gold and silver to Europe. An ambitious British operation in 1741 that utilized American colonists in a raid on Cartagena ended in disaster when many of the volunteers died from tropical disease. John Bradstreet- (1714-1774), A British officer and former prisoner at the French fortress of Louisbourg who revealed that the garrison there was undermanned, underequipped, and suffering from low morale. The information helped the New England colonies mobilize and eventually in June 1745 capture of the fort. William Pitt- (1708-1778), Prime minister of England during the Seven Years’ War. Ohio River Valley- The area that constituted the frontier area during the French and Indian War, encompassing territory west of the Appalachians – much of modern-day Ohio, and parts of West Virginia, Indiana, and Pennsylvania. Disputes between the French and British over ownership the territory led to tension and conflict in the middle of the eighteenth century. Forks of the Ohio/Fort Duquesne- A French fort at the confluence of Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers and where they form the Ohio River. The French used it as a staging point for raids into Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia frontiers. British attempts to capture the fort finally succeeded in 1758. George Washington- (1732-1799), Commander-in-chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolution and first President of the United States. In April 1754 Washington guided a regiment of volunteers into the Ohio Country in order to build a fort at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. France used the execution of French diplomatic envoy and diplomats by Washington’s Indian guides during the mission as a pretext for war Edward Braddock- (1695-1755), Major general in the British Army who commanded all British forces in the American colonies during the early moments of the French and Indian War. In 1755 Braddock led a failed expedition to the key French Fort Duquesne. Fort Niagara- A French fort at the head of Lake Ontario and a key part of their supply system of the interior during the French and Indian War. The British captured the position in July 1759. Lake Champlain- Lake between New York and Vermont strategically important to both the French and the British during the French and Indian War. Battle of the Monongahela- The July 9, 1755 battle during the French and Indian War where French and their Indian allies defeated British Major General Edward Braddock’s more conventional force. Braddock himself died of wounds sustained during the battle. Fort Oswego- A key British fort on Lake Ontario captured and destroyed by the French in 1756 during the French and Indian War. Fort William Henry- A British fort at the southern end of Lake George in New York. A French siege during the French and Indian War began on August 3, 1757 and lasted less than a week before the British requested a truce. The resultant “Massacre of Fort William Henry” has become popularized by the novel The Last of the Mohicans and its film adaptation. Micmac- Native peoples near the St. Lawrence River valley allied with New France. William Shirley- (1694-1771), Governor of Massachusetts and temporary commander of all British forces in America following Edward Braddock’s death in 1755. James Abercromby- (1706-1781), British general officer and commander of all British forces during the French and Indian War in America for a short time in 1758. His incompetent leadership in the assault against the French Fort Carillon led to an ignominious British defeat and Abercromby being relieved of his command by Jeffrey Amherst. Fort Frontenac- A French fort located where Lake Ontario empties into the St. Lawrence River, and strategically crucial for them to supply their forts deeper in the American interior during the French and Indian War. Lord Loudoun- (1705-1782), A British lieutenant general, well known for his apathy toward the colonial forces during his tenure as commander of all British forces from 1756 to 1758. Marquis de Vaudreuil- (1698-1778), The last governor-general of New France. Marquis de Montcalm- (1712-1759), The commander of French forces in North America during the French and Indian war beginning in 1756. Montcalm’s successes include capturing the British Fort Oswego and Fort William Henry and defending Fort Carillon. His defense of Quebec against the British ultimately failed, however. Jeffrey Amherst- (1717-1797), Overall British commander in North America from 1758 to 1763, and personally in command of the British forces that captured Montreal, ending the French and Indian War. John Forbes- (1707-1759), British brigadier general during the French and Indian War who helped to arrange a conference that led to the Treaty of Easton, bringing peace with hostile native peoples. His forces were also the first to take possession of Fort Duquesne after the French had fled the area in 1758. Treaty of Easton- A 1758 agreement during the French and Indian War that brought peace between the British and formerly hostile native peoples who had been allied with the French. James Wolfe- (1727-1759), British army officer whose forces defeated the French commander Marquis de Montcalm during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham and allowed the British to capture Quebec. Wolfe died from wounds sustained during the fighting, immortalized in the painting, The Death of General Wolfe. Battle of the Plains of Abraham- The September 13, 1759 battle between French and British forces that ended in French defeat and the British capture of Quebec. Battle of Quiberon Bay- November 1759 naval battle that saw a British squadron commanded by Wiliam Hawke destroy a French fleet, making certain the British control of the high seas and disallowing the French to reinforce New France with troops or supplies. Peace of Paris- The February 10, 1763 peace treaty between Spain, France, and Great Britain that ended the French and Indian War and declared British victory.
Chapter 2: Wars Imperial & Regional, 1689-1763Anderson, Fred. A People’s Army: Massachusetts Soldiers & Society in the Seven Years’ War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984. Anderson, Fred.The War that Made America: A Short History of the French & Indian War. New York: Penguin Books, 2005. Crane, Verner. The Southern Frontier, 1670-1732. New Introduction by Steven C. Hahn. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2004. Gallay, Alan. The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South, 1670 – 1717. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002. Grenier, John. The First Way of War: American War Making On the
Frontier. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Haefeli, Evan, and Kevin Sweeney. Captors and Captives: The 1704 French and Indian Raid on Deerfield. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003. Ivers, Larry E. This Torrent of Indians: War on the Southern Frontier, 1715–1728. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2016. Leach, Douglas Edward. Arms for Empire: A Military History of the British Colonies in North America, 1607-1763. New York: Macmillan, 1973. Starkey,
Armstrong. European and Native American Warfare, 1675-1815. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998. Steele,
Ian K. Betrayals: Fort William Henry and the "Massacre." New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. Chapter 2: Wars Imperial and Regional, 1689–1763Anderson, Fred. A People's Army: Massachusetts Soldiers and Society in the Seven Years' War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984. Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in /pitish North America, 1754–1766. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2000. Black, Jeremy. Fighting for America: The Struggle for Mastery in North America, 1519–1871. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011. Borneman, Walter R. The French and Indian War: Deciding the Fate of North America. New York: Harper Collins, 2006. Calloway, Colin G. The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. Dowd, Gregory Evans. War under Heaven: Pontiac, the Indian Nations & the /pitish Empire. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. Jennings, Francis. Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America. New York: Norton, 1988. Kennett, Lee B. The French Armies in the Seven Years' War: A Study in Military Organization and Administration. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1967. Lee, Wayne. Barbarians and /pothers: Anglo-American Warfare, 1500–1865. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Melvoin, Richard I. New England Outpost: War and Society in Colonial Deerfield. New York: Norton, 1989. Peckham, Howard Henry. The Colonial Wars, 1689–1762. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964. Silver, Peter. Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2008. Titus, James. The Old Dominion at War: Society, Politics, and Warfare in Late Colonial Virginia. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1991. Chapter 2: 1689-1763Site: National Humanities Center Resource Toolbox Site: University of Connecticut Library Colonial Connecticut Records,
1636-1776 Site: Virginia Historical Society Site: University of Nebraska-Lincoln Early Recognized Treaties with American Indian Nations Site: Raid On Deerfield: The Many Stories of 1704 Site: University of Nebraska-Lincoln Electronic Texts in American Studies Site: Library of Congress Internet Archive Site: Military Heritage, The Seven Years War Website Site: Military Heritage, A Soldier's Account of the Campaign on Quebec, 1759 Site: U.S. Army Military History Institute’s Bibliography on the French and Indian War Site:
PBS’s The War that Made America Readings and Resources Page Site: West Point, Colonial Wars Battle and Campaign Maps Site: Library of Congress’s France in America Site: War
for Empire Chapter 3Chapter 3: The American Revolution, 1763-83Chapter 3 focuses on the origins of the American Revolution and the subsequent war between American Patriots and Great Britain. While many people regarded Great Britain as the most powerful country in the world in 1763, the British government struggled to cope with the enormous debt created during the Seven Years’ War, and also faced challenges in the American backcountry. Native peoples had had no say in the deliberations that ended the conflict, and their territories and traditional lifestyles faced growing pressure from settlers migrating westward as demonstrated by Pontiac’s War. Officials in London argued for the need for security in the colonies after tensions with natives erupted into conflict. Their heavy-handed policies contravened the traditional light touch applied to Britain America prior to the Seven Years’ War, resulting in an imperial crisis that ultimately produced a new, independent country. Over the course of the imperial crisis from 1763 to 1774, American Patriots became well organized and new-found groups created a foundation that allowed rebels to exert political control in many areas and strengthen colonial militia establishments. Given the prominent role of New England these political confrontations, British authorities viewed their task as suppressing revolt in that region when the war began. The resulting War of the American Revolution was one of the longest in U.S. history, lasting eight years from Lexington and Concord to the ratification of the Treaty of Paris. Great Britain had advantages in men, weapons, and money but its military was designed to fight conventional Western forces, not a “people in arms” rebelling over much of a continent. Although strong in militia, Patriots recognized the need for regular forces to maintain long-term resistance. The War of the American Revolution, though, was not just about Americans. The legacy of the Saratoga campaign was France’s entry into the conflict, which fundamentally changed the war. Thereafter the British had to fight around the world, and had to change strategy in America to conserve manpower. Washington’s victory at Yorktown, following the frustration of the southern campaigns, marked the clear failure of that policy, and drove Britain to seek peace. In this chapter, students will learn about the different types of combatants and how they fought in the War of the American Revolution. Of particular importance are the differences between British and American strategy during the war. Not only will major campaigns, battles, and commanders outlined but also discussions of how diplomatic, political, and logistical factors affected military operations, and were in turn impacted by the outcome of battles and campaigns. Chapter 3 GlossaryPontiac’s War – A conflict named for an Ottawa chief who helped leada loose coalition of Native American groups that captured many British forts and besieged others in 1763. The war stemmed from expanding British settlement and changes in that followed the surrender of French Canada during the French and Indian war. Boston Massacre – A violent confrontation in 1770 in Boston between locals and a group of British soldiers. Though tensions were diffused in the short term, the incident generated more support for the Patriot cause. First Continental Congress – A gathering in 1774 of representatives from most of Britain’s America colonies that identified and presented their arguments against the British government relating to trade and taxation in the Declaration of Rights of Grievances. Lexington & Concord- Massachusetts towns and the location of suspected American militia arms stores that precipitated British Army searches on April 19, 1775. The resultant confrontations between militia and British regulars constituted the first military clashes of the American Revolutionary War. redcoats- Nickname for British Army regulars during the American Revolutionary War due to their red uniforms. Hessians- German mercenaries hired by the British to fought in the American Revolutionary War. Second Continental Congress- The American political institution during the American Revolutionary War that acted as the government during the war, setting and enforcing policies. Loyalists, Tories- Colonists during the American Revolutionary War who remained loyal to the British Crown. John Burgoyne- (1722-1792), British general during the American Revolutionary War and best known for surrendering his entire army to the Americans in October 1777 during the Saratoga Campaign. The defeat changed the nature of the war, going from a rebellion to an international conflict after France was convinced to join. Henry Clinton- (1730-1795), A British officer during the American Revolutionary War, taking over as commander of all British forces in the war in 1778 until the end of the war. William Howe- (1729-1814), A British officer during the American Revolutionary War, and commander of all British forces until 1778 when he resigned. Battle of Breed’s Hill (Bunker Hill)- June 17, 1775 battle during the American Revolutionary War overlooking Boston, Massachusetts. Fighting took place mostly on Breed’s Hill, next to Bunker Hill. Though a tactical victory for the British, the ability of the American colonial militia to stand up against the British rallied more to the nascent rebellion’s cause. Continental Army- The American regular army during the American Revolutionary War under the command of George Washington. George Washington- (1732-1799), First president of the United States. Beginning his military career during the French and Indian War, Washington went on to command the Continental Army, of which he built from scratch, during the American Revolutionary War. Benedict Arnold- (1741-1801) An American field commander during the American Revolutionary War and a key figure in the defeat of the British at Saratoga. Arnold is best known for defecting to the British in 1780. King George III- (1738-1820), The British monarch during the American Revolutionary War against whom the Americans rebelled. George Germain- (1716-1785), A British military officer and King George III’s colonial secretary during the American Revolutionary War. “war of posts”- George Washington’s use of prepared positions and fortifications early in the American Revolutionary War. Part of his defensive strategy of avoiding risks and confronting the British only when necessary, Washington used posts to protect the army’s movements, reflecting the Continental Army’s weak state and limited capabilities in the early era of the revolution. Battle of Long Island- A Revolutionary War battle at Long Island, New York on August 27, 1776. A defeat for the Americans, George Washington’s young Continental Army along with militia faced British General William Howe’s force of regulars augmented by Hessians. Guy Carleton- (1724-1808), An officer in the British Army and governor of British Canada during the American Revolutionary War. Battles of Trenton & Princeton- Battles during the American Revolutionary War (December 26, 1776 and January 3, 1777, respectively) in New Jersey. American victory over the British in each engagement helped renew the patriotic fervor that had ebbed throughout 1776 after a string of American defeats. Battle of Brandywine Creek- A September 11, 1777 battle during the American Revolutionary War between American General George Washington’s Continental Army and the British regulars commanded by General William Howe near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The American defeat allowed Howe to take Philadelphia. Battle of Germantown- An October 4, 1777 battle during the American Revolutionary War between the Americans and British near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The defeat of George Washington’s Continental forces allowed the British to secure the capital of Philadelphia. Horatio Gates- (1727-1806), An American general during the Revolutionary War and commander of a field army in the Continental Army during the Saratoga Campaign, replaced by Nathaniel Greene after the defeat of Gates at Camden on August 16, 1780. Freeman’s Farm (First Battle of Saratoga)- The first engagement of the Battle of Saratoga in New York on September 19, 1777 during the American Revolutionary War. A tactical victory for British General Burgoyne, it was an operational success for the American and Benedict Arnold. Bemis Heights (Second Battle of Saratoga)- The second engagement of the Saratoga Campaign on October 7, 1777 during the American Revolutionary War. A tactical and strategic victory for the Americans it forced the surrender of British General Burgoyne’s army and convinced the French to join the war as American allies, changing the nature of the war from a rebellion to an international conflict. George Rogers Clark- (1752-1818), American military officer during the American Revolutionary War, famous for leading frontiersmen on a long trek in 1778-79 through the Illinois territory and capturing the ethnically French but British-ruled towns of Kaskaskia and Vincennes. Oriskany- An August 6, 1777 battle in New York during the Saratoga Campaign during the American Revolutionary War. Wyoming Valley, German Flats & Cherry Valley- Frontier settlements in Pennsylvania and New York that were the target of large raids throughout the summer and fall of 1778 by British Loyalists and Iroquois warriors during the American Revolutionary War. Sullivan Expedition- Named after its commander, American John Sullivan, the expedition invaded and destroyed Seneca towns and fields in 1779 in what is today western New York State as a reprisal against the Seneca for Indian raids the year prior during the American Revolutionary War. Valley Forge- The location in Pennsylvania where George Washington’s Continental Army weathered the harsh winter of 1777-1778 and received crucial professional training from Prussian officer Baron de Steuben during the American Revolutionary War. Monmouth Courthouse- An American Revolutionary War battle on June 28, 1778 in New Jersey. While there was no clear victor, George Washington’s Continental Army acquitted themselves well using conventional tactics, the result of training by Baron de Steuben during time spent at Valley Forge. John Paul Jones- (1747-1792), An American naval officer during the American Revolutionary War and the most famous commerce raider during the conflict. Savannah- A large city in Georgia, and also the location of British garrisons during the American Revolutionary War after their forces had failed to wrest the southern countryside from the Americans. Siege of Charleston- The British siege and eventual capture on May 11, 1780 of the South Carolina city during the American Revolutionary War as part of a British campaign in the south to win the war. Banastre Tarleton- (1754-1833), A British officer during the American Revolutionary War and the commander of a Loyalist cavalry unit that defeated a Continental Army unit at the Battle of Waxhaws in South Carolina in May 1780. During the fighting a group of Americans attempted to surrender but were cut down by Tarleton’s men, and thereafter Tarleton’s name became synonymous among Americans with British-sanctioned massacre. Charles, Lord Cornwallis- (1738-1805), A British officer during the American Revolutionary War and in command of the defeated British forces at Yorktown. His surrender on October 19, 1781 and the poor chances of victory in the war convinced the Crown to seek peace with the Americans. Andrew Pickens- (1739-1817), An American South Carolina militia leader during the American Revolutionary War and a noted practitioner of guerrilla warfare against the British. Francis Marion- (1732-1795), An American military leader during the American Revolutionary War, nicknamed the “Swamp Fox” for his use of irregular warfare against the British in the swamps of South Carolina. Thomas Sumter- (1734-1832), A military officer in the South Carolina militia during the American Revolutionary War, nicknamed the “Carolina Gamecock” for his supposedly intense style of fighting. Battle of King’s Mountain- An American Revolutionary War battle on October 7, 1780 in South Carolina. In retaliation for the purported Loyalist massacre of surrendering Continental troops at the Battle of Waxhaws, the Americans showed similar disregard for mercy when surrounded Tories attempting to surrender. Nathanael Greene- (1742-1786), An American officer during the American Revolutionary War and the commander of the southern campaign beginning in 1780 after the British defeat of General Gates at Camden. Greene’s ability to utilize regular and irregular troops and methods harried the British in the south and frustrated their attempts to defeat the Continental Army. Battle of Cowpens- An American Revolutionary War battle in South Carolina on January 17, 1781 in which Continental Army forces led by Daniel Morgan defeated the British under Banestre Tarleton. With a clever use of militia, Morgan was able to fool the British attackers into a trap and secure victory for the Americans, contributing greatly to the defeat of the British southern campaign. “Race to the Dan”- The pursuit of American General Nathanael Greene’s forces by British General Cornwallis in the southern campaign of the American Revolutionary War. A clever gambit by Greene, he led the British over hundreds of miles of hilly, forested country with poor roads during the rainy season that produced swollen rivers. By February 15, 1781, though, Greene had crossed his destination of the Dan River into Virginia, with an exhausted British far from their supplies. Battle of Guilford Courthouse- An American Revolutionary War battle on March 15, 1781 between Nathanael Greene’s American forces and Lord Cornwallis’s British in the aftermath of the “Race to the Dan.” A tactical loss for the Americans, operationally and strategically they had caused more British casualties and helped put an end to the British strategy of controlling the southern states. Siege of Yorktown- An American siege of the British-controlled Yorktown, Virginia during the American Revolutionary War from September 28 to October 19, 1781. An American victory over British Lord Cornwallis’s forces with the aid of the French marked the last major battle of the war and eventually led to a negotiated end to the conflict. Comte de Rochambeau- (1725-1807), French general in command of French forces during the American Revolutionary War and notably the defeat of the British at Yorktown. Battle of the Virginia Capes- A naval battle during the American Revolutionary War on September 5, 1781. Fought between the French and British, a French victory disallowed the evacuation of Lord Cornwallis’s surrounded British army at Yorktown, Virginia. Treaty of Paris, 1783- The treaty between the United States and Britain that ended the American Revolutionary War. Chapter 3: The American Revolution, 1763-83Dowd, Gregory Evans. War under Heaven: Pontiac, the Indian Nations, and the British Empire.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. Ferling,
John. Almost a Miracle: The American Victory in the War of Independence. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. Fischer, David Hackett. Washington’s Crossing. New York:
Oxford University Press, 2004. Gross, Robert A. The Minutemen and their World. New York: Hill and Wang, 1976. Gruber, Ira D. The Howe Brothers and the American Revolution. New York: Atheneum, 1972. Ketchum, Richard M. Saratoga: The Turning Point of America’s Revolutionary War. New York: Henry Holt, 1997. Kwasny, Mark V. Washington’s Partisan War, 1775-1783. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1998. Mayer, Holly A. Belonging to the Army: Camp Followers and Community during the American Revolution. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1996. Pancake, John S. This Destructive War: The British Campaign in the Carolinas, 1780-1782. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1985. Piecuch, Jim. Three Peoples, One King: Loyalists, Indians, and Slaves in the American Revolutionary South, 1775– 1782. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2008. Shy, John. A People Numerous and Armed: Reflections on the Military Struggle for American Independence. Revised edition. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
1990. Taylor, Alan. The Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution. New York: Random House,
2006. Wood, Gordon S. The American Revolution: A History. New York: The Modern Library, 2002. Chapter 3: The American Revolution, 1763–1983Babits, Lawrence E. A Devil of a Whipping: The Battle of Cowpens Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998. Billias, George Athan, ed. George Washington's Generals and Opponents: Their Exploits and Leadership. Boston: Da Capo Press, 1994. Bodle, Wayne K. Valley Forge Winter: Civilians and Soldiers in War. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004. Bowler, Arthur Logistics and the Failure of the British Army in America, 1775–1783. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975. Breen, T. American Insurgents, American Patriots: The Revolution of the People. New York: Hill and Wang, 2010. Buel, Richard Dear Liberty: Connecticut’s Mobilization for the Revolutionary War. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1980. Callo, Joseph John Paul Jones: America's First Sea Warrior. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2006. Carp, E. Wayne To Starve the Army at Pleasure: Continental Army Administration and American Political Culture, 1775–1783. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984. Fowler, William M.Rebels Under Sail: The American Navy During the Revolution. New York: Scribner, 1976. Frey, Sylvia R.Water from the Rock: Black Resistance in a Revolutionary Age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991. Frey, Sylvia R.The British Soldier in America: A Social History of Military Life in the Revolutionary Period. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981. Higginbotham, Don.War and Society in Revolutionary America: The Wider Dimensions of Conflict. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988. The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789. New York: Macmillan, 1971. Higginbotham, Don, ed.Reconsiderations on the Revolutionary War: Selected Essays. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1978. Huston, James A. Logistics of Liberty: American Services of Supply in the Revolutionary War and After. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1991. Kennett, Lee B. The French Forces in America, 1780–1783. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977. Lee, Wayne E. Crowds and Soldiers in Revolutionary North Carolina: The Culture of Violence in Riot and War. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001. Lockhart, Paul. The Drillmaster of Valley Forge: The Baron de Steuben and the Making of the American Army. New York: Harper, 2010. The Whites of Their Eyes: Bunker Hill, the First American Army, and the Emergence of George Washington. New York: Harper, 2011. Logusz, Michael O. With Musket and Tomahawk: The Saratoga Campaign and the Wilderness War of 1777, Vol. I.Oxford: Casemate Publishers, 2012. Martin, James Kirby. A Respectable Army: The Military Origins of the Republic, 1763–1789. Arlington Heights, IL: H. Davidson, 1982. Mayer, Holly A. Belonging to the Army: Camp Followers and Community during the American Revolution. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1996. Neimeyer, Charles Patrick. America Goes to War: A Social History of the Continental Army. New York: New York University Press, 1996. Nelson, James L. George Washington's Secret Navy: How the American Revolution Went to Sea. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008. Palmer, Dave Richard. The Way of the Fox: American Strategy in the War for America, 1775–1783. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1975. Patton, Robert H. Patriot Pirates: The Privateer War for Freedom and Fortune in the American Revolution. New York: Pantheon, 2008. Resch, John Phillips. Suffering Soldiers: Revolutionary War Veterans, Moral Sentiment, and Political Culture in the Early Republic. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999. Royster, Charles. A Revolutionary People at War: the Continental Army and American Character, 1775–1783. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979. Shy, John W. Toward Lexington: The Role of the British Army in the Coming of the American Revolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965. Sosin, Jack M. The Revolutionary Frontier, 1763–1783. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967. Spring, Matthew H. With Zeal and with Bayonets Only: The British Army on Campaign in North America, 1775–1783. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008. Taafe, Stephen R. The Philadelphia Campaign, 1777–1778. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2003. Thomas, Evan.John Paul Jones: Sailor, Hero, Father of the American Navy. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003. Van Buskirk, Judith L. Generous Enemies: Patriots and Loyalists in Revolutionary New York. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002. Wright, Robert K. The Continental Army. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 1983. Chapter 3: 1763-1783Site: Museum of the American Revolution Site: Library of Congress, Maps and Charts of North American and West Indies, 1750-1789 Site:
West Point, The American Revolution Battle and Campaign Maps Site: Archiving Early America’s Maps of Early America Site: Library of Congress, The Rochambeau Map Collection Site: Selections from the Diary of Private Joseph Plumb Martin Site: The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Military Journals of Two Private Site: National Humanities Center Primary, Resources in U.S. History & Literature Site: The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, The American Revolution, 1763-1783 Site: University of Michigan’s Clements Library Online Exhibit, Spy Letters of the American Revolution Site: Massachusetts Historical Society Chapter 4Chapter 4: Challenges in the Early Republic, 1783-1815Chapter 4 covers the host of challenges the United States faced in the generation after winning its independence, including internal revolts, hostilities with Indians, conflict on the high seas, and one large conventional war. Despite these challenges, political differences hampered the establishment of military institutions the young country needed. Early efforts to create a force suffered from political suspicions between those who favored strong national government and those who feared it. But by the early nineteenth century, American political leaders had worked out another compromise: the U.S. would maintain a small regular army and navy to confront more limited threats, and supplement them with militia and armed merchant vessels in case of a larger war. With this system, the U.S. successfully addressed a variety of threats in the 20 years after the Constitution was ratified. But over time, problems generated by the French Revolutionary Wars increased tensions between the U.S. and Great Britain, and by June 1812, these two countries were once again at war. The conflict would demonstrate the weaknesses of America’s military institutions. The country had failed to maintain its militia system, and had not developed adequate administrative and logistical capacity to mount conventional land campaigns. Although U.S. warships won some early ship-on-ship battles, later the Royal Navy’s blockade effectively smothered American naval capabilities. As the origins of the war stemmed from broader hostilities between Great Britain and France, the end of the Napoleonic wars resolved disputes that had fueled the Anglo-American conflict. But poor performance by U.S. armed forces begged the question of how the country would reform its military institutions. In this chapter, students will learn about how political differences shaped the development of U.S. military institutes and how the U.S. constitution addresses armed forces. Indian wars in the Old Northwest and the Old Southwest will be highlighted, as will the impact of the French Revolutionary Wars on the United States. Not only will students learn about America’s early naval wars but also the U.S. military’s performance in the War of 1812. Chapter 4 GlossaryArticles of Confederation- The first attempt at a constitution and the creation of a government by the thirteen American colonies; agreed to by the Congress in 1777 but not ratified by individual states until 1781. Confederation Congress- The central government created by the Articles of Confederation in 1781. Newburgh Conspiracy/Newburgh Addresses- A near mutiny of Continental Army in early 1783 over the lack of payment. Officers met in Newburgh, New York to discuss their grievances, but George Washington defused the situation in his Newburgh Address which counseled patience and convinced the conspirators not to confront Congress. “Sentiments on a Peace Establishment”- General George Washington’s proposal in spring 1783 for a peacetime American military that attempted to balance the need for regulars with American fears of a standing army and reliance on militia. Shays’ Rebellion- An uprising in western Massachusetts beginning in the summer of 1786. Angry about economic hardship and the lack of state reforms, protestors prevented the local governments and courts that adjudicated debt and tax collection cases from operating. The ineffectual response to the insurrection led to calls for a strengthened U.S. government. Federalists- Political group in the United States who produced and promoted adoption of the U.S. Constitution. Favoring a strong national government, their support base consisted of large landowners and businessmen, mostly from the east. Anti-federalists- Political group who opposed ratifying the U.S. Constitution. Favoring strong local and state governments rather than a powerful central government, they generally hailed from more agrarian areas such as the southern and western regions of the United States at the time. Harmar’s expedition- A late 1790 campaign in the Northwest Territory by American troops led by Josiah Harmar in response to increasing frontier violence between Indians and settlers. Harmar’s embarrassing defeat led to calls for a more professional American military. St. Clair’s defeat- A late 1791 campaign by American troops into the Ohio country targeting unfriendly native peoples. Led by the governor of the territory, Arthur St. Clair, the poorly trained force suffered one of the worst defeats in U.S. military history when ambushed on November 4, 1791 by about 1,000 Indians near present-day Fort Recovery, Ohio. Legion of the United States- The expanded American military in response to continued frontier troubles in the Northwest Territory. Founded in 1792 and disbanded four years later, the well-trained force commanded by Anthony Wayne helped attain victory for the United States over Indians in the Northwest Territory. Battle of Fallen Timbers- A frontier battle in August 1794 near Toledo, Ohio between the Legion of the United States and Indians led by Blue Jacket. The American victory helped cause the collapse of Indian resistance in the Northwest Territory. Treaty of Greenville- A 1795 treaty between the United States and Indian chiefs that brought a declared end to hostilities in the Northwest Territory and turned control of land in present-day Ohio and Indiana to the United States. Whiskey Rebellion- A 1794 insurrection in the American backcountry, particularly western Pennsylvania, over an unpopular tax on whiskey. Calling Forth Act of 1792- An act passed by Congress that stipulated how the president of the United States could call militia into federal service, allowing him to do so on his own authority in the event of a foreign invasion or at the request of state officials in response to a rebellion. Democratic Republicans- A political group formerly known as the Anti-Federalists, known most often as Republicans (not to be confused with the current Republican party). Jay’s Treaty- A 1796 peace treaty between Great Britain and the United States during the French Revolution when fighting had broken out between France and Great Britain. The political fallout of the treaty eventually led to an undeclared war between the United States and France, known as the Quasi-War. XYZ Affair- (1797-1798), An incident resulting from President John Adams sending a delegation to France to alleviate tensions caused by French raids on American shipping. French refusal to receive the American envoys, and demands for bribes and loans before negotiations could begin, led to the undeclared Quasi-War. Benjamin Stodderd- (1751-1813), The first U.S. secretary of the navy, responsible for building a modern naval infrastructure. Quasi-War- An undeclared low-intensity naval war from 1798 to 1800 between France and the United States. Resulting from French anger over Jay’s Treaty and the resulting commerce raiding of U.S. vessels, the Americans responded in kind by raiding French commercial shipping in and around the Caribbean Sea. New Army- Part of 1798-1799 military reforms by the Federalist-controlled Congress that expanded the regular U.S. Army due to fears of invasion or insurrection. Consisting of twelve infantry regiments, it was a highly politicized force with the officer corps comprised mostly of Federalists. Convention of Mortefontaine- Signed on September 30, 1800, it ended the Quasi-War between France and the United States. Military Peace Establishment Act of 1802- President Thomas Jefferson’s attempt to depoliticize the U.S. Army. It also established the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York and a permanent Army Corps of Engineers. Tripolitan War- Lasting from 1801 to 1805, it was the America’s first projection of force overseas when the United States Navy reacted to pirates from the Barbary States threatening Mediterranean shipping. Barbary States- A group of North African states made up of Tripoli, Algiers, Morocco, and Tunis, against whom the United States fought during the Tripolitan War, 1801-1805. Edward Preble- Commander of the U.S. Navy’s Mediterranean Squadron during the Tripolitan War. Preble is best known for ordering Stephen Decatur to launch a raid that destroyed the USS Philadelphia after the ship had run aground in Tripoli’s harbor. War of 1812- A war between the United States and Great Britain and their respective Indian allies from 1812-1815, stemming from issues related to the French Revolutionary Wars. Regarded by some as the “second war for Independence” for its consolidation of American control of much the continent, American victory did not bring much profound change, as the belligerents agreed to status quo ante bellum – returning to relations as they were before the war began. Chesapeake-Leopard Affair- An 1807 incident between the frigates USS Chesapeake and the British HMS Leopard. Ostensibly looking for deserted sailors, the British captain stopped the U.S. ship off the coast of Virginia, and opened fire on the Chesapeake when the American captain refused the search. The loss of three sailors and eighteen wounded outraged the American public and led to an embargo against Britain and heighted American militarism. Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa- (1768-1813 and 1775-1836) Shawnee Indian leaders and brothers who attempted to unite Indians into a confederation to oppose encroachment by white settlers down the Ohio River and into the Trans-Appalachian regions. During the War of 1812 they aligned with the British, but with the death of Tecumseh in 1813 during the Battle of the Thames, his native alliance crumbled and helped end British provocations in the Old Northwest. William Henry Harrison- (1773-1841), Ninth president of the United States, and also the commander during the American victory at the Battle of Tippecanoe and the October 5, 1813 Battle of the Thames when his army defeated 800 British soldiers and killed the Shawnee Indian leader, Tecumseh. Battle of Tippecanoe- A War of 1812 battle on November 7, 1811 in present-day western Indiana between William Henry Harrison’s force of regulars and militia and Indian warriors led by the brother of Tecumseh, Tenskwatawa. The American victory undermined the Indian leader’s support and showed that the British were supplying native leaders. War Hawks- A group of young Republican Congressmen before the outbreak of the War of 1812 who agitated for war with Great Britain in order to assert America’s autonomy. Uniform Militia Act of 1792- An American law that required all capable male citizens from 18 to 45 years old to maintain their own weapons and equipment for use in militias. Battle of Lake Erie- A War of 1812 naval battle on September 10, 1813. American Commodore Oliver Perry sailed across Lake Erie and destroyed a British squadron based at Fort Malden, giving the Americans control of shipping on the lake and forcing the British to abandon Forts Detroit and Malden. Battle of the Thames- A War of 1812 battle on October 5, 1813 in Canada where the Shawnee Indian leader, Tecumseh, was killed by William Henry Harrison’s forces. Winfield Scott- (1786-1866), An American army general known for his effective military instruction and ability. Scott was an American military institution, fighting in multiple conflicts including the War of 1812, the Mexican-American War, Black Hawk’s War, the Second Seminole War, and the Civil War. Battle of Chippewa- Part of an American offensive into Canada on July 5, 1814 during the War of 1812 where American commanders, including Winfield Scott, tactically bested British regulars and led their forces to victory. Battle of Lundy’s Lane- The most intense combat of the War of 1812, fought mostly at night next to Niagara Falls, Ontario on July 25, 1814, constituting an operational and strategic victory for the British. Battle of Lake Champlain- A War of 1812 battle fought from September 6 to 11, 1814. The American naval victory ended a British offensive from Canada as well as the last major northern campaign of the war. Battle of Bladensburg- A battle during the War of 1812 near Bladensburg, Maryland on August 24, 1814. The American defeat by British regulars was partly due to the poor performance of militia, but also to tactical mistakes on the part of American leadership. The defeat also allowed the British to continue to Washington, D.C. where they burned the Capitol Building, the Library of Congress, and the White House. Andrew Jackson- (1767-1845), An accomplished military leader during the War of 1812, where he became a hero during the Battle of New Orleans, as well as The Creek War, and the First Seminole War. Jackson went on to become the seventh president of the United States. The Creek War- A war in the American southeast from 1813-1814 involving the United States and its Indian allies against the Red Strick Creek. Ending with the American victory at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, Andrew Jackson negotiated a treaty that saw the United States gain much of present-day Alabama and southern Georgia. Battle of Horseshoe Bend- The decisive battle on March 27, 1814 during the Creek War that ended the Red Stick Creek resistance and led to American victory. Treaty of Fort Jackson- The August 1814 treaty between Andrew Jackson and the Red Stick Creek that declared an American victory and ended the Creek War, ceding half of Red Stick Creek lands to the United States, including much of present-day Alabama and southern Georgia. Battle of New Orleans- The last major engagement of the War of 1812 and an American victory over the British led by Andrew Jackson on January 8, 1815, occurring after the two belligerents had agreed to peace. Treaty of Ghent- The peace treaty that ended the War of 1812 between the United States and Great Britain. Signed on December 24, 1814, the agreement did not see many appreciable gains by either party, as they agreed to end the war on the basis of the status quo ante bellum –returning to relations as they were before the war began. Chapter 4: Challenges in the Early Republic, 1783-1815Calloway, Colin G. The Victory with No Name: The Native American Defeat of the First American Army. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015. Crackel, Theodore J. Mr. Jefferson’s Army: Political and Social Reform of the Military Establishment, 1801-1809. New York and London: New York University Press, 1987. Cress, Lawrence Delbert. Citizens in Arms: The Army and the Militia in American Society to the War of 1812. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982. Hickey, Donald. R. The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict. Bicentennial Edition. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012. Hogeland, William. The Whiskey Rebellion: George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and the Frontier Rebels Who Challenged America's Newfound Sovereignty. New York: Scribner, 2006. Kohn, Richard. Eagle and Sword: The Federalists and the Creation of the Military Establishment in America, 1783-1802. New York: The Free Press, 1975. Lambert, Frank.
The Barbary Wars: American Independence in the Atlantic World. New York: Hill & Wang, 2007. Latimer, Jon. 1812: War with America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007. Skeen, C. Edward. Citizen Soldiers in the War of 1812. Lexington, Kentucky: University of
Kentucky Press, 1999. Stagg, J.C.A. Mr. Madison’s War: Politics,
Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American Republic, 1783-1830. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1983. Toll, Ian. Six Frigates: The Epic History of the Founding of the U.S. Navy. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2006. Chapter 4: Challenges in the Early Republic, 1783–1815Brown, Wilburt S.The Amphibious Campaign for West Florida and Louisiana, 1814–1815: A Critical Review of Strategy and Tactics at New Orleans.Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1969. Budiansky, Stephen.Perilous Fight: America’s Intrepid War with Britain on the High Seas, 1812–1815.New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011. Bunn, Mike, and Clay Williams.Battle for the Southern Frontier: The Creek War and the War of 1812.Stroud, Gloucestershire: The History Press, 2008. Daughan, George.1812: The Navy’s War. New York: Basic Books, 2011. Edmunds, R. David.Tecumseh and the Quest for Indian Leadership. Boston: Little, Brown, 1984. Fowler, William M., Jr.Jack Tars and Commodores: The American Navy, 1783–1815.Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1984. Gaff, Alan D.Bayonets in the Wilderness: Anthony Wayne's Legion in the Old Northwest.Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008. Horsman, Reginald.The War of 1812.New York: Knopf, 1969. Jacobs, James Ripley.The Beginning of the U.S. Army, 1783–1812. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1947. Laxer, James.Tecumseh and Brock: The War of 1812. Toronto: House of Anansi Press, 2012. McCranie, Kevin D.Utmost Gallantry: The U.S. and Royal Navies at Sea in the War of 1812.Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2011. McKee, Christopher.A Gentlemanly and Honorable Profession: The Creation of the U.S. Naval Officer Corps, 1794–1815.Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1991. Owsley, Frank Lawrence.Struggle for the Gulf Borderlands: The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans, 1812–1815.Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1981. Palmer, Dave Richard.1794: America, Its Army, and the Birth of the Nation. Novato, CA: Presidio, 1994. Palmer, Michael A.Stoddert's War: Naval Operations During the Quasi-War With France, 1798–1801.Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1987. Quimby, Robert S.The U.S. Army in the War of 1812: An Operational and Command Study,Vols I and II. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1994. Silverstone, Scott A.Divided Union: The Politics of War in the Early American Republic. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004. Skaggs, David Curtis, and Gerald T. Altoff.A Signal Victory: The Lake Erie Campaign, 1812–1813.Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2000. Stuart, Reginald C.The Half-Way Pacifist: Thomas Jefferson’s View of War. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978. Stuart, Reginald C.War and American Thought: From the Revolution to the Monroe Doctrine.Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1982. Sword, Wiley.President Washington's Indian War: The Struggle for the Old Northwest, 1790–1795.Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985. Symonds, Craig L.Navalists and Antinavalists: The Naval Policy Debate in the United States, 1785– 1827.Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1980. Taylor, Alan.The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, & Indian Allies. New York: Vintage Press, 2011. Watson, Samuel J.Jackson’s Sword: The Army Officer Corps on the American Frontier, 1810–1821.Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2012. Chapter 4: 1783-1815Site: Library of Congress, The First American West: The Ohio River Valley, 1750-1820 Site: National Humanities Center, Primary Resources on U.S. History & Literature Site: The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, The New Nation, 1784-1800 Site: Papers of the War Department, 1784 to 1800 Site: Metro Parks Toledo, Fallen Timbers Battlefield Site: The War of 1812 Website Site: PBS, War of 1812 Site: presidentialrhetoric.com, James Madison’s War Message
to Congress, 1 June 1812 Site: The Historic New Orleans Collection, William C. Cook War of 1812 in the South Collection Site: The White House
Historical Association Online Journal Site: Creek War Site: West Point, The War of 1812 Battle and Campaign Maps Chapter 5Chapter 5: Expansion, 1815-1865Chapter 5 analyzes the period between the War of 1812 and up through the American Civil War, though the latter conflict itself is addressed in the next two chapters. It explains the steps American leaders took to improve the country’s military institutions after the failures in the War of 1812. In the interim, the expanding frontier continued to absorb the regular U.S. Army’s attention. Although conflicts with native peoples were not new, after 1830 President Andrew Jackson’s policy of Indian Removal sparked wars and forced migrations. The U.S. Army, assisted by militia, had been crucial for implementing federal policy in the Wars of Indians Removal and the Trail of Tears. As for the U.S. Navy, it maintained a modest fleet of smaller-to-medium sized vessels to protect American shipping and advance national interests in seas around the world. The most prominent conflict between 1815 and the Civil War was the Mexican War of 1846-48. U.S. forces demonstrated improved leadership, organization and planning, enough to deliver what had not been attained in the War of 1812: a clear victory that achieved the U.S. government’s political goals. After the Mexican War, the U.S. Army returned to its regular peacetime duties, building and garrisoning outposts on the Great Plains and in far western territories of the Mexican Cession and the Pacific Northwest. By that time, the vast majority of Indians residing east of the Mississippi River after the War of 1812 had been removed for white settlement. In this chapter, students will learn about the military reforms that followed the War of 1812. Central to explaining the effects of military reforms in this period is a discussion of the experiences of antebellum soldiers and sailors. Students will also learn about the Wars of Indian Removal. This chapter will also explain the U.S. military’s performance in the Mexican War, as well as highlight the Indians Wars that occurred between 1848 and the end of the Civil War in 1865. Chapter 5 GlossaryWinfield Scott- (1786-1866), An American army general known for his effective military instruction and ability. Scott was an American military institution, fighting in multiple wars including the War of 1812, the Mexican-American War, Black Hawk’s War, the Second Seminole War, and the Civil War. Reduction Act of 1821- Reduced the U.S. Army from 12,000 personnel, mostly enlisted men, down to 6,000. The Act is better known, however, for Secretary of War, John C. Calhoun’s idea of the expansible army. John C. Calhoun- (1782-1850), Secretary of war during James Monroe’s presidency and the architect of the expansible army that was implemented in the Reduction Act of 1821. expansible army- Part of the Reduction Act of 1821, and in response to the poor performance of the U.S. military during the War of 1812, it was Secretary of War John C. Calhoun’s idea that in peacetime the army would maintain a capable officer corps but downsize the number of soldiers. In war, the country would quickly recruit and train enlistees for military service. United States Military Academy- An American service academy founded in 1802 in West Point, New York. After the poor performance of the U.S. military in the War of 1812, West Point became dedicated to fostering military professionalism beginning with the reforms of Superintendent Sylvanus Thayer. Sylvanus Thayer- (1785-1872), Considered the “father” of West Point, the United States Military Academy. His reforms changed the institution from a largely engineering school to a promoter of military professionalism. Andrew Jackson- (1767-1845), An accomplished military leader during the War of 1812, where he became a hero during the Battle of New Orleans, as well as The Creek War, and the First Seminole War. Jackson went on to become the seventh president of the United States. First Seminole War- An 1817-1818 conflict perpetrated by Andrew Jackson and his U.S. forces in Florida. In the name of denying aid to the Seminole Indians, Jackson marched into Spanish Florida and captured two Spanish forts, executing two Britons he accused of supplying the Seminole Indians. Transcontinental Treaty- Negotiated in 1819 between the United States and Spain and ratified in 1821, it ceded all of Florida to the United States. Cherokees- A Native American group, considered by the Americans to be one of the most assimilated of the five “civilized tribes” because they had adopted white American lifestyles. Attempts by Georgia to expel the Cherokee led to the Indian Removal Act of 1830. Seminoles- Native American group of various native peoples traditionally settled in Florida. Attempts by the United States government to seize their lands turned bloody in the Seminole Wars of the nineteenth-century. Indian Removal Act of 1830- Passed during the Andrew Jackson presidency, the policy paid native groups to abandon their traditional homelands in the American southeast and move west of the Mississippi to new lands provided by the federal government. Wars of Indian Removal- A period of conflict and forced migration in the early nineteenth-century in the American southeast when the United States government attempted to relocate Native American tribes from their traditional homelands. Black Hawk’s War- A running conflict on the American frontier in 1832 between American militia and regular troops against Chief Black Hawk and his Sauk people attempting to return to their traditional homeland in northern Illinois. Language barriers, misunderstandings, and wary Americans led to the death of most of Black Hawk’s people and the chief’s capture. Second Seminole War- Sometimes called the Florida War. Stemming from Andrew Jackson’s Indian removal policies, the conflict lasted from 1835 to 1842 and saw the United States fighting an unpopular war to remove the Seminoles from Florida. Treaty of Payne’s Landing- An 1832 agreement between the Seminoles and the United States that the Seminoles would abandon Florida and move west of the Mississippi, leading ultimately to the Second Seminole War. Osceola- (1804-1838), Warrior leader of a band of Seminoles who fought Americans during the Second Seminole War, captured by General Thomas Jesup and died in captivity. Thomas Jesup- (1788-1860), American officer and in command of U.S. troops in Florida during the Second Seminole War, responsible for capturing the Seminole warrior Osceola under arguably deceitful circumstances. Zachary Taylor- (1784-1850), An American military officer who fought in multiple conflicts, including War of 1812, Black Hawk’s War, and the Second Seminole War (including commanding troops at that war’s biggest engagement, the Battle of Okeechobee), and during the Mexican-American War. Taylor went on to become the twelfth president of the United States. Battle of Lake Okeechobee- The largest engagement of the Second Seminole War on December 25, 1837 between American troops and outnumbered Seminole warriors. Second Creek War- Sometimes called the Creek War, white speculators defrauded Creeks of their land titles and squatters settled what was rightfully Creek territory in Alabama. Tensions erupted in 1836, precipitating U.S. military intervention until 1837 when most of the Creeks migrated away. Trail of Tears- the forced relocation of Cherokees and other native groups from the southeast United States to Oklahoma throughout the bitter winter of 1838-1839, claiming anywhere from 4,000 to 8,000 lives. Treaty of New Echota- An 1835 agreement between the U.S. government and Cherokee that the native peoples would abandon their lands in parts of North Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee and Alabama for western territories in exchange for monetary compensation. It became the basis for the Trail of Tears, or the forced relocation west during the winter of 1838-1839. Chief John Ross- (1790-1866), The leader of the Cherokee people during the Trail of Tears. Algerian War/Second Barbary War- A naval war between the United States and Barbary States in 1815 after Barbary corsairs had once again begun targeting U.S. shipping. A show of force brought the pirates to terms and the James Madison administration began a permanent naval presence in the Mediterranean. Matthew C. Perry- (1794-1858), A U.S. naval officer who opened up American trade with Japan in 1853-1854; also known for helping to modernize the U.S. navy by embracing new technology. James K. Polk- (1795-1849), The eleventh president of the United States, noted proponent of American expansion, and commander-in-chief during the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). Antonio López de Santa Anna- (1794-1876), Mexican military officer and politician who was an eleven-time president of Mexico, and leader of the country during the Texas Revolution and the Mexican-American War, conflicts during both of which he commanded an army. Rio Grande River- A river flowing from Colorado to the Gulf of Mexico, constituting the natural border between Texas and Mexico and the point of departure for American forces to invade Mexico during the Mexican-American War. Battle of Palo Alto- One of the first Mexican-War engagements in Texas on May 8, 1846 where Zachary Taylor employed superior artillery to repulse Mexican cavalry charges, inflicting heavy casualties while suffering relatively few in return. Battle of Resaca de la Palma- A Mexican-War engagement taking place one day after the Battle of Palo Alto on May 9, 1846. An American victory by Zachary Taylor stirred support in Washington D.C. to enact war measures. Doniphan’s March- In 1846-1847, a Mexican-American War military movement by over 850 mounted volunteers from Missouri led by U.S. commander in New Mexico, Alexander Doniphan. After crossing 3,500 miles of desert and mountains and fighting two engagements, the force occupied Chihuahua. Battle of Monterrey- An American victory during the Mexican-American War fought between September 20 to 24, 1846, with most of the clashes being urban fighting, requiring house-clearing operations. Vera Cruz Campaign- A Mexican-American War-ending campaign in March 1847 beginning with the first amphibious invasion by U.S. forces at Vera Cruz. An American march hundreds of miles inland toward Mexico City led to the capture of the capital. Battle of Buena Vista- A Mexican-American War engagement fought between February 22-23, 1847 in northern Mexico. Despite large numbers of desertions, it was an impressive tactical victory for outnumbered an inexperienced Americans led by Zachary Taylor against Santa Anna. Battle of Cerro Gordo- An April 18, 1847 battle during the Mexican-American War during the Vera Cruz Campaign and an American victory over Santa Anna. Battles of Contreras & Churubusco- Two linked battles of the Mexican-American War fought on August 19-20, 1847 outside of Mexico City, constituting some of the last fighting of the war, as well as the bloodiest for the victorious Americans. Battle of Chapultepec- A Mexican-American War U.S. victory fought between September 12-13, 1847 where American forces under Winfield Scott attacked Chapultepec, a hill-top mansion that housed the Mexican military academy, opening up Mexico City for an American occupation. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo- The Mexican-American War-ending agreement ratified by both governments by May 1848. It called for the Mexican government to pay the United States $15 million, set the Rio Grande as the Texas border, and handed over Mexico’s northernmost territories in the Mexican Cession. Mexican Cession- The handover of Mexico’s northern territories to the United States – California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona – as agreed upon in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican-American War in 1848. Filibustering Expeditions – Private military expeditions organized and led by Americans which sought to conquer parts of Latin America, such as William Walker’s brief conquest of Nicaragua (1855-57). Sand Creek Massacre – One of the bloodiest and most brutal attacks against a Native American group, in which Colorado militia killed between 130 and 200 mostly women and children of the Cheyenne and Arapahoe tribes in 1864. Chapter 5: The Expansionary Era of 1815-1861Ball, Durwood. Army Regulars on the Western Frontier, 1848–1861. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001. Bauer, K. Jack. The Mexican
War, 1846-48. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1974. Clary, David A. Eagles and Empire: The United States, Mexico, and the Struggle for a Continent. New York: Bantam Books, 2009. Eagles and Empire addresses both U.S. and Mexican perspectives in this account of the two countries’ interactions. Beginning in the late eighteenth century, David Clary discusses developments such as the Texas Revolution before devoting the bulk of the narrative to the Mexican War of 1846-48, addressing political, military and social topics. Coffman, Edward M. The Old Army: A Portrait of the American Army in Peacetime, 1784-1898. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. Ellisor, John. The Second Creek War: Interethnic Conflict and Collusion on a Collapsing Frontier. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2010. Jung, Patrick J. The Black Hawk War of 1832. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007. Leeman, William P. The Long Road to Annapolis: The Founding of the Naval Academy and the Emerging American Republic. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010. May, Robert E.
Manifest Destiny’s Underworld: Filibustering in Antebellum America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002. Missall, John and Mary Lou Missall. The Seminole Wars: America's Longest Indian Conflict. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004. Prucha, Francis Paul. The Sword of the Republic: The United States Army on the Frontier: 1783-1846. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1969. Schroeder, John H. Matthew Calbraith Perry: Antebellum Sailor and Diplomat. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2001. Skelton, William B. An American Profession of Arms: The Army Officer Corps, 1784-1861. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1992. William Skelton’s book is a seminal treatment on the early U.S. army. He argues that the officer corps began to become professional only after the War of 1812, prior to which political issues and uncertainly prevented men from considering officership as a career. Skelton looks at the institutions and factors that enabled army officers to adopt professional attitudes, examining the role of the United States Military Academy, frontier service, and the shared values and attitudes. Valle, James E. Rocks and Shoals: Naval Discipline in the Age of Fighting Sail. Annapolis: United States Naval Institute press, 1980. Watson, Samuel J. Jackson’s Sword: The Army Officer Corps on the American Frontier, 1810–1821. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2012. Watson, Samuel J. Peacekeepers and Conquerors: The Army Officer Corps on the American Frontier, 1821–1846. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2013. Winders, Richard Bruce. Mr.
Polk’s Army: The American Military Experience in the Mexican War. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1997. Chapter 5: Expansion, 1815–1861Ball, Durwood. Army Regulars on the Western Frontier, 1848–1861. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001. Bauer, K. Jack. Surfboats and Horse Marines: U.S. Naval Operations in the Mexican War, 1846–48. Annapolis: U.S. Naval Institute, 1969. Zachary Taylor: Soldier, Planter, Statesman of the Old Southwest. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1985. Brack, Gene M. Mexico Views Manifest Destiny, 1821–1846: An Essay on the Origins of the Mexican War. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1975. Connor, Seymour V. North America Divided: The Mexican War, 1846–1848. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971. Eby, Cecil D. “That Disgraceful Affair,” the Black Hawk War. New York: Norton, 1973. Engstrand, Iris Wilson. Culture y Cultura: Consequences of the U.S.-Mexican War, 1846–1848. Los Angeles: Autry Museum of Western Heritage, 1998. Faulk, Odie B., and Joseph A. Stout, Jr., eds. The Mexican War: Changing Interpretations. Chicago: Sage Books, 1973. Francaviglia, Richard V., and Douglas W. Richmond, eds. Dueling Eagles: Reinterpreting the U.S.-Mexican War, 1846–1848. Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 2000. Foos, Paul W. A Short, Offhand, Killing Affair: Soldiers and Social Conflict during the Mexican-American War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002. Hatch, Thom. Osceola and the Great Seminole War: A Struggle for Justice and Freedom. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2012. Johannsen, Robert Walter. To the Halls of the Montezumas: The Mexican War in the American Imagination. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985. Johnson, Timothy D. Winfield Scott: The Quest for Military Glory. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998. Karsten, Peter. Naval Aristocracy: The Golden Age of Annapolis and the Emergence of Modern American Navalism. New York: Free Press, 1972. Leeman, William P. The Long Road to Annapolis: The Founding of the Naval Academy and the Emerging American Republic. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010. Lewis, Felice Flanery. Trailing Clouds of Glory: Zachary Taylor’s Mexican Campaign and His Emerging Civil War Leaders. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2010. Mahon, John K. History of the Second Seminole War, 1835–1842. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1967. Nichols, Roger L. Black Hawk: And the Warrior’s Path. Arlington Heights, IL: Harlan Davidson, 1992. Remini, Robert Vincent. Andrew Jackson & His Indian Wars. New York: Viking, 2001. Schroeder, John H. Shaping a Maritime Empire: The Commercial and Diplomatic Role of the American Navy, 1829–1861. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985. Tate, Michael L. The Frontier Army in the Settlement of the West. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999. Watson, Samuel J. Peacekeepers and Conquerors: The Army Officer Corps on the American Frontier, 1821–1846. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2013. Chapter 5: 1815-1861Site: Florida Department of State Site: JohnHorse.com Site: Library of Congress, Primary Documents in American History: Indian Removal Act Site: National Park Service, Trail of Tears: National Historic Trail Site: Wisconsin Historical Society, Historic Diaries: Black Hawk War Documents Site: Brown University Library Center, Perry in Japan: a visual history Site: A Continent Divided: The U.S.-Mexico War Site: West Point, Mexican War Battle and Campaign Maps Site: CivilWarAnimated.com, The Mexican American War Site: NachesTrail.org, Diary of the Yakima Indian War Chapter 6Chapter 6: The American Civil War – Confederate Defiance, 1861-62Chapter 6 examines the first two years of the American Civil War. Though the U.S. military had proven its worth in the middle of the nineteenth century in the Mexican War, its greatest test would occur in fighting fellow countrymen, not a foreign power. Far more Americans fought and died in the Civil War of 1861-65 than in all other previous conflicts put together. Its numerous engagements ranged from huge pitched battles with tens of thousands of soldiers on a side, to small skirmishes and raids involving just a few dozen. Between 1861 and 1863, both the Union and the Confederacy mobilized resources and manpower to prosecute a large conventional war. But the unprecedented size of their armies and limited numbers of men with prior military experience made using them difficult. In most Civil War campaigns, the Union pursued the strategic offensive. Though it obtained success in the Western theater in 1862, the Army of the Potomac’s numerous defeats produced mounting frustration. These failures prompted Federal leaders to adopt a different, tougher approach to the war, one that Lincoln began with the Emancipation Proclamation, but continued to evolve until 1865. In this chapter, students will learn about the major campaigns and battles in 1861 and 1862. How each side mobilized manpower and the tactics and technology used to fight battles in the Civil War will be examined. Emphasis on the relative strengths and weaknesses of the Union and the Confederacy, as well as the initial strategies and the diplomacy both sides pursued, is of particular importance. Chapter 6 Glossary“Bleeding Kansas” – Ongoing bloody and brutal guerrilla warfare between pro-slavery and abolitionist settlers in the Kansas territory between 1854 and the American Civil war that highlighted the polarizing effects of possible extension of slavery. John Brown – A radical abolitionist who, in 1859, led a small band that briefly captured a U.S. Army armory in Harper’s Ferry in Virginia in hopes of arming slaves in a general revolt against white slave holders. He was then captured and, in facing execution for his crimes, became a martyr for the cause of ending slavery and abolitionism. smoothbore musket- Muzzle-loaded infantry firearm that predominated from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century until the advent of the rifled barrel. The ball projectile, along with the smooth bore, lessened accuracy and limited range. rifled musket- The infantry firearm that replaced the smoothbore musket in the mid-nineteenth century in most western militaries. With a “rifled,” or grooved barrel, the projectile exited the barrel in a uniform spin, increasing range and accuracy over the smoothbore musket. Minié bullet (or Minié ball)- A cone-shaped lead projectile developed in the mid-nineteenth century by French officer Claude Minié. Hollow-shaped at the base, the combustion of the gunpowder expanded the base of the bullet to contact the rifling in the barrel, increasing range and accuracy. Abraham Lincoln- (1809-1865), The sixteenth president of the United States and commander-in-chief during the American Civil War (1861-1865), assassinated by John Wilkes Booth on April 14, 1865. Jefferson Davis- (1808-1889), Mexican-American War veteran, U.S. senator, secretary of War in the Franklin Pierce administration, and during the American Civil War the president of the Confederate States of American. border states- American states during the Civil War that had legal slavery but remained in the Union, such as Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. Eastern Theater- The area between the Appalachian Mountains and the Atlantic Ocean where the heaviest conventional fighting occurred during the Civil War. Western Theater- The area between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Mountains during the Civil War that saw relatively smaller forces engaged compared to the Eastern Theater, but where fighting was often more irregular and vicious. Anaconda Plan- Civil War strategy developed by U.S. General Winfield Scott. In order to deny the Confederacy resources to support its war effort, the plan called for a U.S. blockade of Confederate ports along the southern coastline and controlling the Mississippi. Shenandoah Valley- A key agricultural region in western Virginia and parts of present-day West Virginia for the Confederacy during the Civil War. First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas)- A Civil War battle on July 21, 1861 in northern Virginia, and the largest battle in American history to that point. The first major engagement of the conflict, Union failures in coordination and execution contributed to a Confederate victory. Confederate Conscription Act- An April 1862 law in the Confederate states that made all able-bodied men between 18-35 years old eligible for the draft during the Civil War. Enrollment Act- A March 1863 law in the Union states during the Civil War making all able-bodied men between 20-45 years old eligible for the draft; also allowed conscripted men to hire substitutes or avoid service for a $300 fee. bounties- Cash bonuses during the Civil War offered to men upon enlistment to stimulate volunteering. New York City Draft Riot- The largest and most lethal draft riot in the north during the Civil War. Taking place in the summer of 1863 in New York City, Irish immigrants angry about their conscription attacked and killed dozens of black residents. Army of the Potomac- The largest Union army during the Civil War, numbering over 100,000 men. George B. McClellan- (1826-1885), A Civil War Union general, responsible for forming the Army of the Potomac. Supremely capable of training men, his overly cautious nature during fighting made him a less successful combat leader. Forts Henry and Donelson- Confederate forts during the Civil War on the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, respectively; captured by Federal troops in February 1862. Don Carlos Buell- (1818-1898), Union general during the Civil War and the leader of the Army of Ohio until relieved by Lincoln in late 1862. Henry Halleck- (1815-1872), Union general during the Civil War in the Western Theater, head of the Department of the Missouri until becoming General-in-Chief of the Army during the summer of 1862. Ulysses S. Grant- (1822-1885), The 18th president of the United States and a Union general during the Civil War. Grant became commander of all Union armies in 1864 after a succession of ineffectual leaders. His aggressive nature and battlefield capabilities helped defeat the Confederacy. (Union) Army of the Tennessee- Union army that operated in the Western Theater during the Civil War; commanded at different times by notable generals U.S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman. (Union) Army of the Ohio- Union army during the Civil War made up of troops from Ohio, Kentucky, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois and Wisconsin. (Confederate) Army of Mississippi- Confederate army during the Civil War that operated in the Western Theater. Battle of Shiloh- Civil War battle between April 6-7, 1862 in south Tennessee, and one of the key engagements in the Western Theater. Smashing Confederate hopes of retaking Tennessee, the Battle of Shiloh is also notable for one of the first shockingly bloody battles of the war. New Orleans- One of the few centers of southern industry and finance for the Confederate States during the Civil War, captured by Union forces in April 1862. Peninsula Campaign- A five month-long offensive by Union forces in eastern Virginia during the Civil War beginning in March 1862. Battle of Fair Oaks (Seven Pines)- Civil War battle and southern defeat from May 31 to June 1, 1862 during the Peninsula Campaign. Robert E. Lee- (1807-1870), General and Confederate commander of the Army of Northern Virginia during the Civil War, eventually becoming overall commander of the Confederacy’s armies. His military talents allowed the Confederates to gain victories in many of the war’s early battles against numerically superior Union forces. Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson- (1824-1863), General in the Confederate Army during the Civil War, and one of Robert E. Lee’s best commanders in his Army of Northern Virginia. A gifted tactician, Jackson’s abilities led to key Confederate victories throughout the war until his death in May 1863 from pneumonia. Valley Campaign- A campaign from May-June 1862 by Confederate forces led by Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson throughout the Shenandoah Valley. Using speed, deception, and terrain, Jackson distracted Union attention and drew Federal reinforcements away from the concurrent Peninsula Campaign. Seven Days Battles- Seven successive Civil War battles beginning on June 25, 1862 as part of the Peninsula Campaign. A strategic victory for the Confederacy because their capital of Richmond was saved and Lee’s troops captured all-important supplies and arms. Second Battle of Bull Run (Manassas)- Civil War battle begun on August 28, 1862 and lasting three days, much of it on the same ground in northern Virginia as the Battle of Bull Run one year earlier. The stunning Confederate victory ultimately led to the Southern invasion of Maryland and the Battle of Antietam. Battle of Antietam- Civil War battle in Maryland fought on September 17, 1862 as part of Robert E. Lee’s invasion of the north. The bloodiest day in American history when both side’s casualties are combined, it was a Union strategic and operational victory, since the Confederate’s invasion and bid for a negotiated settlement failed. Nathan Bedford Forrest- (1821-1877), Confederate cavalry officer during the Civil War. Braxton Bragg- A Confederate general during the Civil War, overall commander of the Army of Tennessee in the Western Theater. Bragg is also the namesake of the U.S. Army’s present-day Fort Bragg. (Confederate) Army of Tennessee- The main Confederate army that operated in the Western Theater during the Civil War. Battle of Perryville- A Civil War battle in central Kentucky on October 8, 1862. The result of a meeting engagement, Confederate troops led by Braxton Bragg retreated, ultimately ending the Confederacy’s one major offensive in the west. contrabands- A Union term for runaway slaves. By classifying them “contraband of war,” or property seized that would benefit the enemy, Union forces were able to refuse the return of slaves to southern captivity. Emancipation Proclamation (Preliminary & Final)- Orders given by President Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War. The Preliminary Proclamation of September 22, 1862 stated that the U.S. government and military would recognize and maintain the freedom of the people in the rebelling states. The Final Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863 stipulated the specific areas in which slaves were now free. blockade- The denial of supplies to an enemy, such as the Union’s strategy during the Civil War to cut off Confederate trade with international partners. Most often executed with the use of ships that block water lanes, land forces can also block the transfer of materials, such as in the Berlin Blockade of 1948-49. Ironclads- Ships covered in iron armor, typically steam-powered. First used in the Civil War by both the Union and Confederacy. commerce raiders- Open-seas pillagers who stop and seize enemy vessels in order to disrupt commercial exchanges. cotton diplomacy/King Cotton diplomacy- Attempts by southerner exporters during the Civil War to impose trade embargos on cotton in the belief that if cotton supplies dried up France and Britain would suffer, inducing their participation in the war on the side of the Confederacy. William Rosecrans- (1819-1898), Union general during the Civil War who replaced Don Carlos Buell as the commander of the Army of Ohio, becoming the Army of the Cumberland. Rosecrans was victorious in the Battle of Corinth and the Battle of Stones River, successes negated by the humiliating defeat at the Battle of Chickamauga in September 1863. (Union) Army of the Cumberland- A Union army in the Western Theater during the Civil War, led by William Rosecrans from what was formerly the Army of Ohio. Battle of Fredericksburg- A Civil War battle in northeast Virginia fought between December 11-15, 1862. Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia inflicted heavy losses on the Army of the Potomac as a result of the Union force’s near-suicidal frontal attacks that never reached their destinations. Battle of Stones River (Murfreesboro)- A Civil War battle in central Tennessee begun on December 31, 1862. The Confederate Army of Tennessee retreated on January 2, 1863 after suffering about a third of their number in casualties, giving the Union a much-needed victory after the disaster of Fredericksburg. Chapter 6: The American Civil War – Confederate Defiance, 1861-62Chapter 7: The American Civil War – Union Triumph, 1863-65Ash, Stephen V. When the Yankees Came: Conflict and Chaos in the Occupied South, 1861–1865. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,
1995. Attie, Jeanie. Patriotic Toil: Northern Women and the American Civil War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998. Blair, William Alan. Virginia’s Private War: Feeding Body and Soul in the Confederacy, 1861–1865. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Caudill, Edward, and Paul Ashdown. Sherman’s March in Myth and Memory. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2008. Faust, Drew Gilpin. Mothers of Invention: Women of the Slaveholding South in the American Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996. Faust, Drew Gilpin. The Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War. New York: Knopf, 2008. The Republic of Suffering is a social history that explores how Americans grappled with the Civil War’s unprecedented scale of death. Drew Gilpin Faust examines how the war challenged pre-existing attitudes about dying, and the efforts both during and after the war to inter, record, and memorialize the dead. She notes how post-war efforts reflected an expanded role for government, and enabled former enemies to bury lingering animosities. Gallagher, Gary W. The Confederate War.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997. Gallagher, Gary W. The Union War. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011. Geary, James W. We Need Men: The Union Draft in the Civil War. Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1991. Glatthaar, Joseph T. Forged in Battle: The Civil War Alliance of
Black Soldiers and White Officers. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000. Grimsley, Mark. The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy Toward Southern Civilians, 1861-65. New York: Cambridge University Press. Guelzo, Allen C.
Fateful Lightning: A New History of the Civil War & Reconstruction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Hall, Richard H. Women on the Civil War Battlefront. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006. Jenkins, Wilbert L. Climbing up to Glory: A Short History of African Americans during the Civil War and Reconstruction. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2002. Kennett, Lee B. Marching through Georgia: The Story of Soldiers and Civilians during Sherman’s Campaign. New York: HarperCollins, 1995. Linderman, Gerald F. Embattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the American Civil War. New York: Free Press, 1987. McPherson, James. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. McPherson, James. Tried By War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in Chief. New York: Penguin, 2008. Mitchell, Reid. The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves
Home. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Nolan, Alan T. Lee Considered: General Robert E. Lee and Civil War History. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,
1991. Rable, George C. Fredericksburg! Fredericksburg! Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,
2002. Rafuse, Ethan S. A Single Grand Victory: The First Campaign and Battle of Manassas. Wilmington, DE:
Scholarly Resources, 2002. Reardon, Carol. Pickett’s Charge in History and Memory. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997. Roberts, William H. Now for the Contest: Coastal and Oceanic Naval Operations in the Civil War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004. Royster, Charles. The Destructive War: William Tecumseh Sherman, Stonewall Jackson, and the Americans. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991. Reid, Brian Holden. America’s Civil War: The Operational Battlefield 1861-63. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books,
2008. Sears, Stephen W. To the Gates of Richmond: The Peninsula Campaign. New
York: Houghton Mifflin, 1992. Shea, William L., and Terence J. Winshell. Vicksburg Is the Key: The Struggle for the Mississippi River. Lincoln:
University of Nebraska Press, 2003. Stoker, Donald J. The Grand Design: Strategy and the U.S. Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Symonds, Craig L.
The Civil War at Sea. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. Weigley, Russell F. A Great Civil War: A Political and Military History,
1861-65. Indiana: University of Bloomington Press, 2000. Woodworth, Steven E. Beneath a Northern Sky: A Short History of the Gettysburg Campaign. Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources, 2003. Woodworth,
Steven E. Six Armies in Tennessee: The Chickamauga and Chattanooga Campaigns. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998. Chapter 6: The American Civil War - Confederate Defiance, 1861–1863 and Chapter 7: The American Civil War—Union Triumph, 1863–1865(Note: Books that address Indian conflicts during the Civil War are listed under Chapter 8) Adams, George Worthington. Doctors in Blue: The Medical History of the Union Army in the Civil War. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996. Adams, Michael C. C. Our Masters the Rebels: A Speculation on Union Military Failure in the East, 1861–1865. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978. Ash, Stephen V. When the Yankees Came: Conflict and Chaos in the Occupied South, 1861–1865. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. Attie, Jeanie. Patriotic Toil: Northern Women and the American Civil War. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998. Ayers, Edward L. In the Presence of Mine Enemies: War in the Heart of America, 1859–1863. New York: W. W. Norton, 2003. Beringer, Richard E., Herman Hattaway, Archer Jones, and William N. Still. Why the South Lost the Civil War. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986. Blair, William Alan. Virginia's Private War: Feeding Body and Soul in the Confederacy, 1861–1865. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Browning, Robert M. From Cape Charles to Cape Fear: The North Atlantic Blockading Squadron during the Civil War. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1993. Success s All That Was Expected: The South Atlantic Blockading Squadron during the Civil War. Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 2002. Burton, William L. Melting Pot Soldiers: The Union’s Ethnic Regiments. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1988. Campbell, Jaqueline Glass. When Sherman Marched North from the Sea: Resistance on the Confederate Home Front. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003. Castel, Albert E. Decision in the West: The Atlanta Campaign of 1864. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992. Caudill, Edward, and Paul Ashdown. Sherman’s March in Myth and Memory. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2008. Clark, John Elwood. Railroads in the Civil War: The Impact of Management on Victory and Defeat. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001. Connelly, Thomas Lawrence. The Politics of Command: Factions and Ideas in Confederate Strategy. Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press. 1973. The Marble Man: Robert E. Lee and His Image in American Society. New York: Knopf, 1977. Cozzens, Peter. Shenandoah 1862: Stonewall Jackson’s Valley Campaign. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008. Cunningham, O. Edward. Shiloh and the Western Campaign of 1862. Edited by Gary D. Joiner and Timothy B. Smith. New York: Savas Beatie, 2007. Downs, Jim. Sick From Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Escott, Paul D. After Secession: Jefferson Davis and the Failure of Confederate Nationalism. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978. Feis, William B. Grant's Secret Service: The Intelligence War from Belmont to Appomattox. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Fellman, Michael. Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the American Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. Fishel, Edwin C. The Secret War for the Union: The Untold Story of Military Intelligence in the Civil War. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1996. Förster, Stig, and Jorg Nagler, On the Road to Total War: The American Civil War and the German Wars of Unification, 1861–1871. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Freehling, William W. The South vs. the South: How Anti-Confederate Southerners Shaped the Course of the Civil War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Freeman, Douglas Southall. R.E. Lee: A Biography. 4 vols. New York: Charles Scribner’s & Sons, 1934 [one-volume abridgement Lee, edited by Richard Harwell, published Simon & Schuster, 1997]. Geary, James W. We Need Men: The Union Draft in the Civil War. Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1991. Glatthaar, Joseph T. The March to the Sea and Beyond: Sherman's Troops in the Savannah and Carolinas Campaigns. New York: New York University Press, 1985. Soldiering in the Army of Northern Virginia: A Statistical Portrait of the Troops Who Served Under Robert E. Lee. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011. Goodheart, Adam. 1861: The Civil War Awakening. New York: Random House, 2011. Griffith, Paddy. Battle Tactics of the Civil War. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989. Grimsley, Mark, and Brooks D. Simpson, eds. The Collapse of the Confederacy. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001. Guelzo, Allen C. Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004. Hagerman, Edward. The American Civil War and the Origins of Modern Warfare. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988. Hall, Robert H. Women on the Civil War Battlefront. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006. Harsh, Joseph L. Confederate Tide Rising: Robert E. Lee and the Making of Southern Strategy, 1861–1862. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1998. Hattaway, Herman. How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983. Hennessy, John J. Return to Bull Run: The Campaign and Battle of Second Manassas. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. Reprint, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999. Hess, Earl J. The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1997. Field Armies & Fortifications in the Civil War: The Eastern Campaigns, 1861–1864. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005. Jenkins, Wilbert L. Climbing Up to Glory: A Short History of African Americans During the Civil War and Reconstruction. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2002. Jones, Archer. Civil War Command and Strategy: The Process of Victory and Defeat. New York: Free Press, 1992. Jones, Howard. Blue & Gray Diplomacy: A History of Union and Confederate Foreign Relations. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010. Josephy, Alvin M. The Civil War in the American West. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991. Kennett, Lee B. Marching through Georgia: The Story of Soldiers and Civilians during Sherman's Campaign. New York: HarperCollins, 1995. Luraghi, Raimondo. A History of the Confederate Navy. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1996. Martin, David G. Gettysburg, July 1. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Books, 1996. Martin, Samuel J. General Braxton Bragg, C.S.A. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2011. Marszalek, John F. Sherman: A Soldier’s Passion for Order. New York: Free Press, 1993. Commander of all Lincoln’s Armies: A Life of General Henry W. Halleck. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004. Marvel, William. Lee’s Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002. The Alabama and the Kearsarge: The Sailor’s Civil War. University of North Carolina Press, 2007. Maslowski, Peter, Treason Must be Made Odious: Military Occupation and Wartime Reconstruction in Nashville, Tennessee, 1862–65. Millwood, NY: KTO Press, 1978. McDonough, James Lee. War in Kentucky: From Shiloh to Perryville. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1994. McFeely, William S. Yankee Stepfather: General O. O. Howard and the Freedmen. New York: W. W. Norton, 1994. McMurry, Richard M. Two Great Rebel Armies: An Essay in Confederate Military History. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. McPherson, James M. Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. War on the Waters: The Union and Confederate Navies, 1861–1865. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012. McWhiney, Grady. Attack and Die: Civil War Military Tactics and the Southern Heritage. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1982. Mitchell, Reid. The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Newell, Clayton R., and Charles R. Shrader. Of Duty and Faithfully Done: A History of the Regular Army in the Civil War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2011. Pfanz, Harry W. Gettysburg, The Second Day. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987. Reed, Rowena. Combined Operations in the Civil War. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1978. Roberts, William H. Now for the Contest: Coastal and Oceanic Naval Operations in the Civil War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004. Civil War Ironclads: The U.S. Navy and Industrial Mobilization. Johns Hopkins UP, 2007. Rowland, Thomas J. George B. McClellan and Civil War History: In the Shadow of Grant and Sherman. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1998. Royster, Charles. The Destructive War: William Tecumseh Sherman, Stonewall Jackson, and the Americans. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991. Rubin, Anne S. A Shattered Nation: The Rise and Fall of the Confederacy, 1861–1868. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005. Rutkow, Ira M. Bleeding Blue and Gray: Civil War Surgery and the Evolution of American Medicine. New York: Random House, 2005. Sears, Stephen W. George B. McClellan: The Young Napoleon. New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1988. Chancellorsville. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1996. Landscape Turned Red: The Battle of Antietam. New York: Da Capo Press, 1999. Shea, William L., and Terence J. Winshell. Vicksburg Is the Key: The Struggle for the Mississippi River. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003. Simpson, Brooks D. Ulysses S. Grant: Triumph Over Adversity, 1822–1865. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000. Still, William N. Iron Afloat: The Story of the Confederate Armorclads. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1971. Sutherland, Daniel E. A Savage Conflict: The Decisive Role of Guerrillas in the American Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009. Symonds, Craig L. Joseph E. Johnston: A Civil War Biography. New York: Norton, 1992. Tap, Bruce. Over Lincoln's Shoulder: The Committee on the Conduct of the War. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998. Thomas, Emory M. Robert E. Lee: A Biography. New York: Norton, 1995. Urwin, Gregory, ed. Black Flag over Dixie: Racial Atrocities and Reprisals in the Civil War. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2004. Wheelan, Joseph. Terrible Swift Sword: The Life of General Philip H. Sheridan. Boston: Da Capo, 2012. Wilson, Mark R. The Business of Civil War: Military Mobilization and the State, 1861–1865. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010. Woodworth, Steven E. Jefferson Davis and His Generals: The Failure of Confederate Command in the West. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990. Six Armies in Tennessee: The Chickamauga and Chattanooga Campaigns. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998. Chapter 6 & Chapter 7: 1861-1865Site: Civil War Trust Site:
West Point, Civil War Battle and Campaign Maps Site: Digital Library of Georgia, Civil War & Reconstruction, 1861-1877 Site: The Valley of the Shadow: Two Communities in the American Civil War Site: Library
of Congress, Selected Civil War Photographs Site: The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, The Civil War, 1861-1865 Site: CivilWarAnimated.com Site: National Archives, Pictures of the Civil War Site: Gettysburg College, Collection at Gettysburg College Site: Library of Congress, Civil War Maps, 1861-1865 Site: Yale Law School, The Avalon Project, General Orders No. 100: The Lieber Code Site: U.S. Army Heritage & Education Center, Reference Bibliographies Site: Naval History & Heritage Command, Civil War Site: Library of Congress, Abraham Lincoln Papers Site: National Civil War Museum Site: Duke University, David M. Rubenstein Rare Book and Manuscript Collection Site: Civil War Landscapes Association Site: Making of America, Cornell University Site: eHistory, Ohio State University Chapter 7Chapter 7: The American Civil War – Union Triumph, 1863-65Chapter 7 discusses the American Civil War from 1863 to the conclusion of the war in 1865. As 1863 began, Union and Confederate armies continued to face each other across America. Hundreds of thousands had already died from sickness and combat as armies mobilized, as would hundreds of thousands more before the Civil War ended. A combination of tactics, technology and the size the armies produced particularly lethal battles Men wounded in battle but who survived numbered hundreds of thousands more. In both the Union and the Confederacy, such horrific carnage fueled frustration and efforts to pursue military operations that would bring final victory. Non-combatants also suffered in the war’s first years, but the extent paled compared to the misery at the war’s end. Much of this stemmed from Union strategy, though Confederate weaknesses also contributed. Even before 1863, the Lincoln administration pursued means to weaken southern economic and logistical capacity with a naval blockade and by emancipating slaves. By April 1865, all these factors had so eroded southern morale as to induce Confederate capitulation. In the American Civil War, a system of pre-existing institutions, customs and procedures created armies larger than any previously seen in the Western hemisphere. Designed to raise manpower for war with a major external enemy, northerners and southerners instead used them against each other in the most destructive war ever fought in North America. Soldiers endured a form of combat more brutal than they could have imagined, and the scale of killing scarred the American public consciousness for years thereafter. Both sides struggled to find and execute a strategy that would bring final victory. In the end, the Union pursued various means to exhaust the Confederacy and destroy southern will to keep fighting. The war preserved the United States, but its end brought other challenges, some of which would also only be resolved through conflict. In this chapter, students will learn about the major campaigns and battle from 1863 to 1865. Central to that discussion is an attempt to understand how men and women experience the Civil War. Emphasis will be placed on how Union strategy evolved from 1863 to 1865, including naval warfare’s role in that evolution. Chapter 7 GlossaryJoe Hooker- (1814-1879), A general in the Union army during the Civil War, nicknamed “Fighting Joe,” given command of the Army of the Potomac in early 1863. His reputation is usually sullied by the disastrous Union defeat by Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia at the Battle of Chancellorsville in spring 1863. Battle of Chancellorsville- A Civil War battle from April 30 to May 6, 1863 in northeast Virginia. Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia defeated Joe Hooker’s Army of the Potomac, due as much to Lee’s near recklessness as Hooker’s timidity. George G. Meade- (1815-1872), Union general during the Civil War who took command of the Union Army from Joe Hooker only days before the Battle of Gettysburg began – a decisive engagement that saw Meade defeat Confederate General Robert E. Lee. Battle of Gettysburg- A Civil War battle in south-central Pennsylvania fought between July 1-3, 1863. Recently given command of the Army of the Potomac, General George Meade won a dramatic victory for the Union over Robert E. Lee’s Confederate forces in the Civil War’s bloodiest battle. Cemetery Ridge- The center of the Union Army’s line during the Civil War Battle of Gettysburg, and the target of the failed Pickett’s Charge on the battle’s last day, July 3, 1863. Pickett’s Charge- The failed Confederate attack on the Union Army’s center at Cemetery Ridge during the Civil War Battle of Gettysburg’s last day, July 3, 1863. Vicksburg- A Mississippi town on the banks of the Mississippi and Yazoo Rivers. Union General Ulysses S. Grant’s capture of Vicksburg after a siege from May 18 to July 4, 1863 secured the Union’s strategic goal of splitting the Confederacy into two and denying it access to western resources. John C. Pemberton- (1814-1881), Confederate general who surrendered Vicksburg, Mississippi to Federal forces during the Civil War after a Union siege that lasted from May 18 to July 4, 1863. Battle of Chickamauga- A Civil War battle in northwest Georgia fought between September 19-20, 1863. The Union’s Army of the Cumberland led by William Rosecrans lost to Confederate General Braxton Bragg’s Army of Tennessee, and both sides endured some of the worst casualties of the war. George Thomas- (1816-1870), A Union general during the Civil War, nicknamed “The Rock of Chickamauga” for leading the delaying action at the Battle of Chickamauga (September 19-20, 1863) that allowed the rest of the Union force to retreat and avoid a full rout. Battle of Chattanooga- A Civil War battle in southeast Tennessee, part of the larger Chattanooga campaign, November 24-26, 1863. A momentous victory for the Union in the Western Theater, it gave control of Tennessee to Federal forces and allowed Chattanooga to become a supply line for drives deeper into the south. Overland Campaign- A Civil War campaign throughout Virginia from May to June 1864, commanded by Ulysses S. Grant against Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia. Battle of the Wilderness- A Civil War battle in northeast Virginia fought between May 5-7, 1864. The start of Ulysses S. Grant’s Overland Campaign, the engagement was mostly close-quarters combat that claimed 17,000-18,000 Union casualties while the Confederates lost around 10,000. Battle of Spotsylvania Courthouse- A Civil War battle, the second of Ulysses S. Grant’s Overland Campaign, in Northeast Virginia that lasted from May 8-21, 1864. Cold Harbor- A Civil War battle fought from May 31-June 12, 1864 in eastern Virginia as part of Ulysses S. Grant’s Overland Campaign. Union forces suffered tremendous casualties for no tactical gain. Petersburg- A town in eastern Virginia and the site of a Union victory that marked the final battle of the Overland Campaign during the Civil War. The Union siege of the town of Petersburg lasted from June 9, 1864 to March 25, 1865 and was punctuated by almost continual combat, most of it involving elaborate fortifications. Philip Sheridan- (1831-1888), A Union general during the Civil War and commander of the Army of the Shenandoah’s cavalry who wrecked the South’s crucial agricultural base in the Shenandoah Valley in late 1864. Sheridan’s cavalry forces were also key in blocking the Army of Northern Virginia’s retreat at Appomattox Court House, helping to force the surrender of Robert E. Lee’s army. Atlanta Campaign- The Union drive during the Civil War through Georgia led by William Tecumseh Sherman beginning in May 1864 and culminating with Sherman’s capture of Atlanta on September 2. John Bell Hood- (1831-1879), A Confederate general during the Civil War and in command of the Army of Tennessee that defended Atlanta from William Tecumseh Sherman’s advances during the 1864 Atlanta campaign. His demoralized and defeated Army of Tennessee surrendered in spring 1865, the only other major Confederate force left other than Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia. Battle of Mobile Bay- A Civil War naval battle from August 2 to August 23, 1864 in Mobile Bay, Alabama. David Farragut led eighteen Union ironclads and wooden ships with one army division into the bay, forcing the surrender of a small Confederate flotilla, cutting off one of the Confederacy’s few remaining shipping ports. March to the Sea- The November to December 1864 campaign by William Tecumseh Sherman’s Union forces. Destroying the southern infrastructure and capturing or destroying anything of perceived military value to the Confederacy along the 300 mile march, the campaign succeeded in Sherman’s goal of making southerners realize their government could not protect them. Battle of Nashville- A Civil War battle during Hood’s Tennessee Campaign, lasting from December 15-16, 1864. A Union victory, John Bell Hood’s Army of Tennessee ceased to become an effective fighting force and shortly after surrendered to Federal forces, the next to last major Confederate army that remained. U.S. Sanitary Commission- An agency during the Civil War that attempted to improve hygiene and medical conditions in Union army camps, as well as helping to identify those killed in action, identity the dead’s families, and either bury them or ship their remains home. U.S. Christian Commission- An agency during the Civil War that tended to the spiritual and material needs of Union soldiers, providing Bibles, writing materials, and fresh food. Richmond Bread Riot- An April 1863 riot during the Civil War in the Southern capital of Richmond, Virginia. The high price of bread, a product of poor harvests and foraging armies, created women-led riots across the south, with Richmond’s being the most infamous. Fort Fisher- A Confederate fort during the Civil War near Wilmington, North Carolina. Captured by Federal forces in January 1865, the Confederacy thus lost access to the last remaining port east of the Mississippi. March through the Carolinas- February 1865 march by William Tecumseh Sherman’s forces during the Civil War. Union troops destroyed supplies and resources that could have supported Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia. Columbia- State capital of South Carolina, razed during the Civil War shortly after Union troops arrived on February 17, 1865. Battle of Five Forks- Civil War battle on April 1, 1865 in southeast Virginia near Petersburg. A Confederate defeat, Philip Sheridan’s Union troops captured half of George Pickett’s forces and scattered the rest, causing Robert E. Lee to abandon Petersburg and the Confederate administration to abandon Richmond. Appomattox Courthouse- The location in central Virginia where Robert E. Lee surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia to Ulysses S. Grant on April 9, 1865, effectively ending the Civil War. Chapter 6: The American Civil War – Confederate Defiance, 1861-62Chapter 7: The American Civil War – Union Triumph, 1863-65Ash, Stephen V. When the Yankees Came: Conflict and Chaos in the Occupied South, 1861–1865. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. Attie, Jeanie. Patriotic Toil: Northern Women and the American Civil War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998. Blair, William Alan. Virginia’s Private War: Feeding Body and Soul in the Confederacy, 1861–1865. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Caudill, Edward, and Paul Ashdown. Sherman’s March in Myth and Memory. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2008. Faust, Drew Gilpin. Mothers of Invention: Women of the Slaveholding South in the American Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996. Faust, Drew Gilpin. The Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War. New York: Knopf, 2008. The Republic of Suffering is a social history that explores how Americans grappled with the Civil War’s unprecedented scale of death. Drew Gilpin Faust examines how the war challenged pre-existing attitudes about dying, and the efforts both during and after the war to inter, record, and memorialize the dead. She notes how post-war efforts reflected an expanded role for government, and enabled former enemies to bury lingering animosities. Gallagher, Gary W. The Confederate War. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997. Gallagher, Gary W. The Union War. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011. Geary, James W.
We Need Men: The Union Draft in the Civil War. Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1991. Glatthaar, Joseph T. Forged in Battle: The Civil War Alliance of Black Soldiers and White Officers. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press,
2000. Grimsley, Mark. The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy Toward Southern Civilians, 1861-65. New York: Cambridge University Press. Guelzo, Allen C. Fateful Lightning: A New History of the Civil War & Reconstruction. New York:
Oxford University Press, 2012. Hall, Richard H. Women on the
Civil War Battlefront. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006. Jenkins, Wilbert L. Climbing up to
Glory: A Short History of African Americans during the Civil War and Reconstruction. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2002. Kennett, Lee B. Marching through Georgia: The Story of Soldiers and Civilians during Sherman’s Campaign. New York: HarperCollins, 1995. Linderman, Gerald F. Embattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the American Civil War. New York: Free Press, 1987. McPherson, James. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. McPherson, James. Tried By War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in
Chief. New York: Penguin, 2008. Mitchell, Reid. The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Nolan, Alan T. Lee Considered: General Robert E. Lee and Civil War History. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991. Rable, George C. Fredericksburg! Fredericksburg! Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002. Rafuse, Ethan S. A Single Grand Victory: The First Campaign and Battle of Manassas. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2002. Reardon, Carol. Pickett’s Charge in History and Memory. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997. Roberts,
William H. Now for the Contest: Coastal and Oceanic Naval Operations in the Civil War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004. Royster, Charles. The Destructive War: William Tecumseh Sherman, Stonewall Jackson, and the Americans. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991. Reid, Brian Holden. America’s Civil War: The Operational Battlefield 1861-63. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2008. Sears, Stephen W. To the Gates of Richmond: The Peninsula Campaign. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1992. Shea, William L., and Terence J. Winshell. Vicksburg Is the Key: The Struggle for the Mississippi River. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003. Stoker, Donald J. The Grand Design: Strategy and the U.S. Civil War.
New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Symonds, Craig L. The Civil War at Sea. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. Weigley, Russell F. A Great Civil War: A Political and Military History, 1861-65. Indiana: University of Bloomington Press, 2000. Woodworth, Steven E. Beneath a Northern Sky: A Short History of the Gettysburg
Campaign. Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources, 2003. Woodworth, Steven E. Six Armies in Tennessee: The Chickamauga and Chattanooga Campaigns. Lincoln: University of
Nebraska Press, 1998. Chapter 6: The American Civil War - Confederate Defiance, 1861–1863 and Chapter 7: The American Civil War—Union Triumph, 1863–1865(Note: Books that address Indian conflicts during the Civil War are listed under Chapter 8) Adams, George Worthington. Doctors in Blue: The Medical History of the Union Army in the Civil War. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996. Adams, Michael C. C. Our Masters the Rebels: A Speculation on Union Military Failure in the East, 1861–1865. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978. Ash, Stephen V. When the Yankees Came: Conflict and Chaos in the Occupied South, 1861–1865. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. Attie, Jeanie. Patriotic Toil: Northern Women and the American Civil War. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998. Ayers, Edward L. In the Presence of Mine Enemies: War in the Heart of America, 1859–1863. New York: W. W. Norton, 2003. Beringer, Richard E., Herman Hattaway, Archer Jones, and William N. Still. Why the South Lost the Civil War. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986. Blair, William Alan. Virginia's Private War: Feeding Body and Soul in the Confederacy, 1861–1865. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Browning, Robert M. From Cape Charles to Cape Fear: The North Atlantic Blockading Squadron during the Civil War. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1993. Success s All That Was Expected: The South Atlantic Blockading Squadron during the Civil War. Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 2002. Burton, William L. Melting Pot Soldiers: The Union’s Ethnic Regiments. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1988. Campbell, Jaqueline Glass. When Sherman Marched North from the Sea: Resistance on the Confederate Home Front. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003. Castel, Albert E. Decision in the West: The Atlanta Campaign of 1864. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992. Caudill, Edward, and Paul Ashdown. Sherman’s March in Myth and Memory. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2008. Clark, John Elwood. Railroads in the Civil War: The Impact of Management on Victory and Defeat. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001. Connelly, Thomas Lawrence. The Politics of Command: Factions and Ideas in Confederate Strategy. Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press. 1973. The Marble Man: Robert E. Lee and His Image in American Society. New York: Knopf, 1977. Cozzens, Peter. Shenandoah 1862: Stonewall Jackson’s Valley Campaign. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008. Cunningham, O. Edward. Shiloh and the Western Campaign of 1862. Edited by Gary D. Joiner and Timothy B. Smith. New York: Savas Beatie, 2007. Downs, Jim. Sick From Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Escott, Paul D. After Secession: Jefferson Davis and the Failure of Confederate Nationalism. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978. Feis, William B. Grant's Secret Service: The Intelligence War from Belmont to Appomattox. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Fellman, Michael. Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the American Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. Fishel, Edwin C. The Secret War for the Union: The Untold Story of Military Intelligence in the Civil War. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1996. Förster, Stig, and Jorg Nagler, On the Road to Total War: The American Civil War and the German Wars of Unification, 1861–1871. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Freehling, William W. The South vs. the South: How Anti-Confederate Southerners Shaped the Course of the Civil War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Freeman, Douglas Southall. R.E. Lee: A Biography. 4 vols. New York: Charles Scribner’s & Sons, 1934 [one-volume abridgement Lee, edited by Richard Harwell, published Simon & Schuster, 1997]. Geary, James W. We Need Men: The Union Draft in the Civil War. Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1991. Glatthaar, Joseph T. The March to the Sea and Beyond: Sherman's Troops in the Savannah and Carolinas Campaigns. New York: New York University Press, 1985. Soldiering in the Army of Northern Virginia: A Statistical Portrait of the Troops Who Served Under Robert E. Lee. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011. Goodheart, Adam. 1861: The Civil War Awakening. New York: Random House, 2011. Griffith, Paddy. Battle Tactics of the Civil War. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989. Grimsley, Mark, and Brooks D. Simpson, eds. The Collapse of the Confederacy. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001. Guelzo, Allen C. Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004. Hagerman, Edward. The American Civil War and the Origins of Modern Warfare. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988. Hall, Robert H. Women on the Civil War Battlefront. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006. Harsh, Joseph L. Confederate Tide Rising: Robert E. Lee and the Making of Southern Strategy, 1861–1862. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1998. Hattaway, Herman. How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983. Hennessy, John J. Return to Bull Run: The Campaign and Battle of Second Manassas. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. Reprint, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999. Hess, Earl J. The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1997. Field Armies & Fortifications in the Civil War: The Eastern Campaigns, 1861–1864. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005. Jenkins, Wilbert L. Climbing Up to Glory: A Short History of African Americans During the Civil War and Reconstruction. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2002. Jones, Archer. Civil War Command and Strategy: The Process of Victory and Defeat. New York: Free Press, 1992. Jones, Howard. Blue & Gray Diplomacy: A History of Union and Confederate Foreign Relations. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010. Josephy, Alvin M. The Civil War in the American West. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991. Kennett, Lee B. Marching through Georgia: The Story of Soldiers and Civilians during Sherman's Campaign. New York: HarperCollins, 1995. Luraghi, Raimondo. A History of the Confederate Navy. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1996. Martin, David G. Gettysburg, July 1. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Books, 1996. Martin, Samuel J. General Braxton Bragg, C.S.A. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2011. Marszalek, John F. Sherman: A Soldier’s Passion for Order. New York: Free Press, 1993. Commander of all Lincoln’s Armies: A Life of General Henry W. Halleck. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004. Marvel, William. Lee’s Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002. The Alabama and the Kearsarge: The Sailor’s Civil War. University of North Carolina Press, 2007. Maslowski, Peter, Treason Must be Made Odious: Military Occupation and Wartime Reconstruction in Nashville, Tennessee, 1862–65. Millwood, NY: KTO Press, 1978. McDonough, James Lee. War in Kentucky: From Shiloh to Perryville. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1994. McFeely, William S. Yankee Stepfather: General O. O. Howard and the Freedmen. New York: W. W. Norton, 1994. McMurry, Richard M. Two Great Rebel Armies: An Essay in Confederate Military History. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. McPherson, James M. Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. War on the Waters: The Union and Confederate Navies, 1861–1865. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012. McWhiney, Grady. Attack and Die: Civil War Military Tactics and the Southern Heritage. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1982. Mitchell, Reid. The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Newell, Clayton R., and Charles R. Shrader. Of Duty and Faithfully Done: A History of the Regular Army in the Civil War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2011. Pfanz, Harry W. Gettysburg, The Second Day. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987. Reed, Rowena. Combined Operations in the Civil War. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1978. Roberts, William H. Now for the Contest: Coastal and Oceanic Naval Operations in the Civil War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004. Civil War Ironclads: The U.S. Navy and Industrial Mobilization. Johns Hopkins UP, 2007. Rowland, Thomas J. George B. McClellan and Civil War History: In the Shadow of Grant and Sherman. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1998. Royster, Charles. The Destructive War: William Tecumseh Sherman, Stonewall Jackson, and the Americans. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991. Rubin, Anne S. A Shattered Nation: The Rise and Fall of the Confederacy, 1861–1868. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005. Rutkow, Ira M. Bleeding Blue and Gray: Civil War Surgery and the Evolution of American Medicine. New York: Random House, 2005. Sears, Stephen W. George B. McClellan: The Young Napoleon. New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1988. Chancellorsville. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1996. Landscape Turned Red: The Battle of Antietam. New York: Da Capo Press, 1999. Shea, William L., and Terence J. Winshell. Vicksburg Is the Key: The Struggle for the Mississippi River. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003. Simpson, Brooks D. Ulysses S. Grant: Triumph Over Adversity, 1822–1865. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000. Still, William N. Iron Afloat: The Story of the Confederate Armorclads. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1971. Sutherland, Daniel E. A Savage Conflict: The Decisive Role of Guerrillas in the American Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009. Symonds, Craig L. Joseph E. Johnston: A Civil War Biography. New York: Norton, 1992. Tap, Bruce. Over Lincoln's Shoulder: The Committee on the Conduct of the War. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998. Thomas, Emory M. Robert E. Lee: A Biography. New York: Norton, 1995. Urwin, Gregory, ed. Black Flag over Dixie: Racial Atrocities and Reprisals in the Civil War. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2004. Wheelan, Joseph. Terrible Swift Sword: The Life of General Philip H. Sheridan. Boston: Da Capo, 2012. Wilson, Mark R. The Business of Civil War: Military Mobilization and the State, 1861–1865. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010. Woodworth, Steven E. Jefferson Davis and His Generals: The Failure of Confederate Command in the West. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990. Six Armies in Tennessee: The Chickamauga and Chattanooga Campaigns. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998. Chapter 6 & Chapter 7: 1861-1865Site: Civil War Trust Site: West Point, Civil War Battle and Campaign Maps Site: Digital Library of Georgia, Civil War & Reconstruction, 1861-1877 Site: The Valley of the Shadow: Two Communities in the American Civil War Site: Library
of Congress, Selected Civil War Photographs Site: The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, The Civil War, 1861-1865 Site: CivilWarAnimated.com Site: National Archives, Pictures of the Civil War Site: Gettysburg College, Collection at Gettysburg College Site: Library of Congress, Civil War Maps, 1861-1865 Site: Yale Law School, The Avalon Project, General Orders No. 100: The Lieber Code Site: U.S. Army Heritage & Education Center, Reference Bibliographies Site: Naval History & Heritage Command, Civil War Site: Library of Congress, Abraham Lincoln Papers Site: National Civil War Museum Site: Duke University, David M. Rubenstein Rare Book and Manuscript Collection Site: Civil War Landscapes Association Site: Making of America, Cornell University Site: eHistory, Ohio State University Chapter 8Chapter 8: Transitions, 1865-1902Chapter 8 covers the period between the end of the Civil War and the creation of an overseas American empire, pinpointing the variety of conflicts the U.S. military confronted in that era. The deadliest conflict in American history had ended in the spring of 1865, but even as hundreds of thousands of soldiers returned home, U.S. Army units began coping with post-war violence in the southern states and a new round of Indian wars in the west. By the late 1870’s, regular troops were no longer present in the southern states, and frontier conflicts with native peoples were entering their final phase. The last development begged the question of the army’s future peacetime role. Army officers strove to prepare for a conventional war against a major Western power, and improved professional standards and training to that end. Volunteer militias also adopted new roles and a new name, the National Guard, during this period. But the U.S. Navy saw the greatest changes in its composition and mission. The emergence of America as a great industrial power, combined with the growing popularity of imperialist ideas that called for a greater American role in global affairs, bolstered arguments for a larger, more modern and powerful fleet. The Spanish-American War of 1898 tested both services. The navy won some dramatic victories that bolstered national pride and reaffirmed its new role. In contrast, the army had problems deploying a force to Cuba, though it prevailed once there. The end of the war against Spain led to a rebellion against U.S. control in the Philippines. Here too, the U.S. Army successfully defeated resistance in 1902. But its difficulties in these conflicts later led to a re-evaluation of U.S. military policies in the early twentieth century. In this chapter, students will learn about the use of armed forces during Reconstruction and the southern insurrections. From Reconstruction this chapter will cover the wars with native peoples in the American West, highlighting the changing roles of the U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, and volunteer militia. Last, this chapter covers the American military performance during the Spanish-American War (1898-99) and the Philippine-American War (1899-1902). Chapter 8 GlossaryPresidential Reconstruction- A moderate form of Reconstruction – the period after the Civil War when ex-Confederate states were permitted back into the Union – from 1865 to 1867, supported by President Abraham Lincoln and his successor, Andrew Johnson. Lincoln and Johnson were more concerned about speedily restoring the Union, regardless of protections for African Americans. Military Reconstruction Acts- 1867 laws passed during Radical Reconstruction that essentially allowed for Federal military occupation of southern states, placing the ten unreconstructed states into five military districts with an army generals exercising authority over state governments in their districts. Congressional Reconstruction- A radical form of Reconstruction following the Civil War from 1867 to 1870. Also known as Military Reconstruction, ex-Confederate states had to meet stricter criteria than Presidential Reconstruction for reentry into the Union, and the Military Reconstruction Acts allowed for the Federal occupation of southern states until each state met Congress’ requirements. Freedmen’s Bureau- A Reconstruction-era organization set up by the U.S. government in 1865 to protect the rights of former slaves by providing them legal services, education, jobs, and landownership. Memphis and New Orleans Race Riots- Riots in May and July 1866, respectively. While the violence in Memphis was a spontaneous release of social tensions due to a growing black population, the New Orleans riot was political, with the disruption of a convention who sought to expand black rights. Ku Klux Klan- White supremacist group originally formed in 1866 as a social club for Confederate veterans. In response to Congressional Reconstruction in 1867 many members became terrorists by harnessing violence to achieve political goals. Lashing out against Republican leaders of both races and Reconstruction proponents in the south, KKK members attempted to frighten the black population into submission and drive away their white allies. southern insurgencies- Reconstruction-era attempts by southern white conservative groups to use intimidation and terror to remove the Republican state governments formed during Congressional Reconstruction and replace them with Democratic ones. redemption- Reconstruction-era attempts by white southern conservative groups to install conservative Democratic state governments and re-institute white supremacy, thus redeeming the south and ostensibly saving the southern states from the horrors of “Black” Republican rule. Enforcement Acts- Reconstruction-era acts passed by Congress in 1870-1871 that outlawed the KKK and similar groups, made depriving people of their civil and political rights a federal offense, and allowed presidents to impose martial law in the event of an insurrection. Colfax Massacre- One of the bloodiest events of the Reconstruction period, occurring in Louisiana in April 1873. Confusing election results led to African American men gathering in Colfax to protect Republican officials from a potential attack. Hundreds of alarmed whites confronted the group and a battle ensued with up to 100 black men dying. White Leagues- Reconstruction-era groups of conservative whites who in 1874 openly threatened, bullied, and attacked local Republican officials and their supporters, often better armed than official militia. White Liners- Conservative paramilitary organizations in the Reconstruction-era south. Mississippi Plan- A Reconstruction-era program of intimidation by conservative paramilitaries in Mississippi, so-called “White Liners.” In 1875 White Liners used violence and threats against Republican meetings and speakers in an attempt to take back political control from the Republican government. Red Shirts- A well-organized conservative white band in South Carolina during Reconstruction who employed intimidation and fraud to help secure a Democratic victory in the 1876 election. Compromise of 1877- A deal made between the Democratic and Republican parties in order to resolve the disputed 1876 presidential election. Democrats allowed Republican Rutherford B. Hayes to assume the presidency in exchange for the withdrawal of Federal troops from the only southern states still to have Republican governments and army garrisons, thus ending Reconstruction. 1867 Medicine Lodge Treaty- An ultimately failed treaty that sought to confine natives on the southern plains to reservations, namely the Kiowa, Comanche, Kiowa Apache, Cheyenne, and Arapahoe peoples. Relinquishing claims to their lands, these Indian groups agreed to move to designated areas in Indian Territory north of the Red River and to remain peaceable toward white settlers. 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie- Treaty between the United States government and Indian groups in the Wyoming Territory. It gave the native peoples the Great Sioux Reservation, all of present-day South Dakota west of the Missouri River, in exchange for continued peace with white settlers. While it calmed the northern plains for a few years, lack of agreement between signatories and continued white expansion incited Indian resistance, compromising the peace. Bureau of Indian Affairs- The U.S. government organization that administers Indian reservations. Grant’s Peace Policy- A U.S. government policy announced in 1869 that attempted to assimilate Native Americans in the west. The plan placed Indian groups on reservations where they would receive protection while humanitarian and religious groups would provide education and Christian instruction. Sand Creek Massacre- The attack of a peaceful Indian village by Colorado militia on November 29, 1864, resulting in about 150-200 slaughtered men, women, and children. Phil Sheridan- (1831-1888), A U.S. Army general with considerable experience in the Civil War, he helped lead U.S. Army operations during the Indian Wars on the Great Plains in the 1860s, where he organized brutal winter campaigns to chastise belligerent bands of Indians and force them back onto reservations. George Crook- (1828-1890), A U.S. Army general during the Indian Wars of the Pacific Northwest in the 1860-1870s. Crook is known for his use of pack mules instead of horses to carry provisions over difficult terrain, utilizing Indian allies as trackers and to augment his regulars, and aggressively pursuing hostile Indian bands. buffalo soldiers- African American soldiers in the U.S. Army led by white officers. Originally established as the Ninth and Tenth Cavalry Regiments and the Twenty Fourth and Twenty Fifth Infantry Regiments in 1866, their service was crucial during the western Indian wars, particularly on the southern plains and southwest. Modoc War- A Pacific Northwest conflict beginning in 1872, triggered when a band of disgruntled Modoc Indians, unhappy with their reservation, attempted to return to their homelands on the California-Oregon border. A series of clashes between the Modoc, white settlers, and U.S. Army troops finally ended in June 1873. Nez Perce War- A Pacific Northwest conflict beginning in 1877 stemming from the refusal of a band of Nez Perce Native Americans to move onto reservations. Federal cavalry pursuit of an obstinate band of Nez Perce for 3½ months resulted in a nearly 1,700 mile chase until Chef Joseph and 400 of his people surrendered with another 300 escaping into Canada, at a cost of 100 men, women, and children during the war. Apache Wars- A series of continual hostilities between the Chiricahua Apaches in the Arizona Territory, white settlers, and U.S. soldiers after the Civil War. Native raids throughout the 1860s and 1870s led to increased U.S. Army operations against the Indians across the American southwest, including Mexico. The last stage of the wars began in 1881 and culminated with the September 1886 capture of Geronimo, ending native resistance to U.S. authority in the region. Geronimo- (1829-1909), An Apache mystic who led warrior bands in the American southwest and Mexico during the Apache Wars. His surrender to American forces in September 1886 led to the end of the Apache Wars and native resistance to U.S. authority in the region. Red Cloud’s War- A conflict between Native American groups, most notably Lakota and Cheyenne bands. Red Cloud, the most prominent of the hostile Lakota chiefs, led attacks against civilian routes to Montana gold mines and against U.S. Army soldiers in 1866 until the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie ended the conflict. Fetterman Massacre- The killing of eighty U.S. Army soldiers on December 21, 1866 by 1,500 Native American warriors in northern Wyoming during Red Cloud’s War. Battle of the Washita- An assault against a Cheyenne village by Lieutenant Colonel George Custer’s 7th U.S. Cavalry Regiment in present-day western Oklahoma. As part of Philip Sheridan’s campaign against the winter camps of belligerent bands, Custer attacked the camp of Black Kettle, killing the chief and nearly one hundred of his people while capturing about fifty women and children. Red River War- An 1874 conflict in the American Great Plains resulting from Kiowa, Comanche, and Cheyenne warrior bands leaving Indian territory to ravage settlements and travelers in Texas and Kansas. Philip Sheridan led U.S. Army troops in numerous battles against belligerent natives until defeated bands drifted back to the reservations. Great Sioux War- An 1876-1877 conflict on the northern plains between Lakota peoples led by Sitting Bull with his Cheyenne allies and U.S. military forces. Clashes over forced relocation led to the Battle of the Rosebud and Battle of the Little Bighorn. Battle of the Rosebud- An attack by Lakota and Cheyenne warriors against George Crook’s U.S. Army troops during the Great Sioux War on June 17, 1876 in present-day southern Montana. Battle of the Little Bighorn- An engagement during the Great Sioux War between U.S. Army cavalry and bands of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors in present-day southern Montana. Lasting from June 25-26, 1876, the battle is best known for George Armstrong Custer’s “last stand,” claiming the lives of Custer and all of his men. Battle of Wounded Knee- The last engagement of the Indian Wars. Taking place on December 29, 1890 at Wounded Knee Creek, South Dakota, a botched attempt to disarm a group of Lakota warriors ended in fighting that killed 150 Lakota men, women, and children and twenty-five U.S. soldiers. National Guard- The volunteer state militias of the United States. Though the American military had long been founded on the idea militias, it was not until the 1870s that state militias began to label them National Guard, and by 1898 these units constituted the reserves to the Regular Army but remained state-controlled. Throughout the late 1800s the National Guard dealt with labor unrest and prevented race-related violence. Alfred Thayer Mahan- (1840-1914), Considered by many to be one of the most influential American strategists, the so-called “prophet of American navalism.” Mahan’s book published in 1890, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783, advocated that the United States control the sea through a large navy and overseas bases in order to dominate international sea lanes and foster a strong economy. Spanish-American War- An April-August, 1898 war between the United States and Spain. Fought in two theaters, the Caribbean and Pacific, conflict resulted from an American desire to see Spanish withdrawal from Cuba, and that colony’s independence. Fighting did not last long in either Cuba or the Spanish holdings in the Philippines, though it revealed fractures in the U.S. military and its ability to mobilize. The end of hostilities marked the first pieces of an overseas American empire. U.S.S. Maine- American battleship sunk on February 15, 1898 in Havana Harbor, an event that helped to precipitate the Spanish-American War. Battle of Manila Bay- A naval battle on the morning of May 1, 1898 during the Spanish-American War in the Philippines. U.S. Navy Commodore George Dewey’s Asiatic Squadron destroyed Spanish vessels commanded by Patricio Montojo, eliminating Spain’s naval power in the Pacific and making Dewey a hero in the United States. Battle of Santiago (land & sea)- The culminating actions in the Caribbean Theater during the Spanish-American War. The land battle began on July 1, 1898 and the sea battle that destroyed the Spanish fleet in the Caribbean followed two days later, virtually securing American victory in the war and eventually leading to a negotiated settlement. Treaty of Paris- The negotiated settlement of the Spanish-American War, signed on December 10, 1898. Philippine-American War- A conflict between Filipino revolutionaries and the United States from June 1899 to July 1902. For the first year the war remained a conventional conflict, but in 1900 it transformed into guerrilla warfare and U.S. counterinsurgency operations that utilized punitive measures. Emilio Aguinaldo- (1869-1964), A Filipino revolutionary who led a rebellion against Spain and worked with the United States in the Spanish-American War to defeat the Spanish. Aguinaldo led resistance forces during the Philippine-American War until his capture in March 1901. Battle of Manila- The final large military engagement of the Spanish-American War in the Pacific Theater. Though U.S. forces worked with Filipino resistance fighters to assault the Spanish-held city of Manila, a secret arrangement between the Americans and Spain meant that the Spanish handed the city over to the Americans on August 13, 1898, not the Filipinos. General Orders 100- Also known as the Lieber Code, originally issued to Union armies during the Civil War but also invoked during the Philippine-American War, the U.S. government directive dictated lawful treatment of prisoners and civilians during war. Samar and Batangas- An eastern island of the Philippines and a province on Luzon, respectively, they were the sight of punitive campaigns launched by the Americans that used coercive measures Filipino resistance during the Philippine-American War. Balangiga- The sight in the Philippines of a Filipino surprise attack in September 1901 by rebels and villagers on a company of U.S. soldiers, killing or wounding almost all of the seventy-eight Americans. The U.S. Army used harsh punitive measures in retaliation, chasing rebels, destroying crops, livestock, and homes. Chapter 8: Transitions – Force in Domestic, Frontier, and Imperial Contexts, 1865-1902Adams, Kevin. Class and Race in the Frontier Army: Military Life in the West, 1870-1890. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2009. Coffman, Edward M. The Old Army: A Portrait of the American Army in Peacetime, 1784-1898. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. Cooper, Jerry M. The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia, 1865-1920. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997. Cosmas, Graham A. An Army for Empire: The U.S. Army in the Spanish-American War. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1998. Dawson, Joseph G. Army Generals and Reconstruction: Louisiana, 1862-77. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982. Linn, Brian M. The Philippine War, 1899-1902. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000. McBride, William M. Technological Change and the United
States Navy, 1865-1945. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2000. Ostler, Jeffrey. The Plains Sioux and U.S. Colonialism from Lewis and Clark to Wounded Knee. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Rable, George C. But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984. Seager, Robert. Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Man and his Letters. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1977. Robert Seager’s work offers a biography of Alfred Thayer Mahan, particularly the course of his naval career, and also analyzes the writings of America’s most prominent writer on the topic of sea power. Sefton, James E. The United States Army and
Reconstruction, 1865-1877. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967. Trask, David F. The War with Spain. New York: Macmillan, 1981. Utley, Robert M. Frontier Regulars: The United States Army and the Indian, 1866–1891. Lincoln:
University of Nebraska Press, 1973. West, Elliot. The Last Indian War: The Nez Perce Story. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. Zuczek,
Richard. State of Rebellion: Reconstruction in South Carolina. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1996. Chapter 8: Transitions, 1865–1902Abrahamson, James L. America Arms for a New Century: The Making of a Great Military Power. New York: Free Press, 1981. Ambrose, Stephen E. Upton and the Army. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1993. Barnett, Louise K. Touched by Fire: The Life, Death, and Mythic Afterlife of George Armstrong Custer. New York: Henry Holt, 1996. Challener, Richard D. Admirals, Generals, and American Foreign Policy, 1898–1914. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973. Clendenen, Clarence Clemens. Blood on the Border: The United States Army and the Mexican Irregulars. New York: Macmillan, 1969. Cooling, B. Franklin. Gray Steel and Blue Water Navy: The Formative Years of America's Military-Industrial Complex, 1881–1917. Hamden, CT: Archon Books/The Shoestring Press, 1979. Cooper, Jerry M. The Army and Civil Disorder: Federal Military Intervention in Labor Disputes, 1877–1900. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980. Dunlay, Thomas W. Wolves for the Blue Soldiers: Indian Scouts and Auxiliaries with the United States Army, 1860–90. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982. Ellis, Richard N. General Pope and U.S. Indian Policy. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 1970. Fletcher, Marvin. The Black Soldier and Officer in the United States Army, 1891–1917. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1974. Fowler, William M. Under Two Flags: The American Navy in the Civil War. New York: Norton, 1990. Gates, John Morgan. Schoolbooks and Krags: The United States Army in the Philippines, 1898–1902. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1973. Hagan, Kenneth J. American Gunboat Diplomacy and the Old Navy, 1877–1889. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1973. Hatch, Thom. Black Kettle: The Cheyenne Chief Who Sought Peace but Found War. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2004. Hoganson, Kristin L. Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998. Hoig, Stan.The Battle of the Washita: The Sheridan-Custer Indian Campaign of 1867–69. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976. Haley, James L. The Buffalo War: The History of the Red River Uprising of 1874. New York: Doubleday, 1976. Hutton, Paul Andrew. Phil Sheridan and His Army. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985. Karsten, Peter. The Naval Aristocracy: The Golden Age of Annapolis and the Emergence of Modern American Navalism. New York: Free Press, 1972. Lane, Jack C. Armed Progressive: General Leonard Wood. San Rafael, CA: Presidio Press, 1978. Leonard, Thomas C. Above the Battle: War-Making in America from Appomattox to Versailles. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. Linn,Brian McAllister. The U.S. Army and Counterinsurgency in the Philippine War, 1899–1902. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. May, Glenn Anthony. Battle for Batangas: A Philippine Province at War. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991. McDermott, John D. A Guide to the Indian Wars of the West. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998. Miller, Stuart Creighton. “Benevolent Assimilation”: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982. Millett, Allan Reed. The General: Robert L. Bullard and Officership in the United States Army, 1881–1925. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1975. Monnett, John H. Where a Hundred Soldiers Were Killed: The Struggle for the Powder River Country in 1866 and the Making of the Fetterman Myth. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2008. Nelson, Kurt R. Fighting for Paradise: A Military History of the Pacific Northwest. Yardley, PA: Westholme, 2007. Nenninger, Timothy K. The Leavenworth Schools and the Old Army: Education, Professionalism, and the Officer Corps of the United States Army, 1881–1918. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1978. O’Connell, Robert L. Sacred Vessels: The Cult of the Battleship and the Rise of the U.S. Navy. Boulder : Westview Press, 1991 Ostler, Jeffrey. The Plains Sioux and U.S. Colonialism from Lewis and Clark to Wounded Knee. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Richter, William L. The Army in Texas during Reconstruction, 1865–1870. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1987. Rickey, Don. Forty Miles a Day on Beans and Hay: The Enlisted Soldier Fighting the Indian Wars. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963. Roberts, David. Once They Moved Like the Wind: Cochise, Geronimo and the Apache Wars. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. Schultz, Duane P. Month of the Freezing Moon: The Sand Creek Massacre, November 1864. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1990. Over the Earth I Come: The Great Sioux Uprising of 1862. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992. Silbey, David J. A War of Frontier and Empire: The Philippine-American War, 1899–1902. New York: Hill & Wang, 2007. Simpson, Brooks D. Let Us Have Peace: Ulysses S. Grant and the Politics of War and Reconstruction, 1861–1868. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991. Smith, Sherry Lynn. The View from Officers’ Row: Army Perceptions of Western Indians. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990. Utley, Robert Marshall. Frontiersmen in Blue: The United States Army and the Indian, 1848–1865. New York, Macmillan, 1967. Cavalier in Buckskin: George Armstrong Custer and the Western Military Frontier. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988. Welch, James. Killing Custer: The Battle of the Little Bighorn and the Fate of the Plains Indians. New York: W. W. Norton, 1994. Welch, Richard E. Response to Imperialism: The United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899–1902. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979. West, Elliot. The Last Indian War: The Nez Perce Story. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. Wooster, Robert. Nelson A. Miles and the Twilight of the Frontier Army. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993. Wooster, Robert Allen. The Military and United States Indian Policy, 1865–1903. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988. Young, Kenneth Ray. The General’s General: The Life and Times of Arthur MacArthur. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994. Zuczek, Richard. State of Rebellion: Reconstruction in South Carolina. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1996. Chapter 8: 1865-1902Site: National Archives, Photographs of the American
West: 1861-1912 Site: Indian Wars: Diary of Pvt. William Jordan - Starvation March Site: KansasMemory.org, History of the 19th Kansas Cavalry – Indian War of 1868-69 Site: Naval History & Heritage Command, Spanish-American War Site: Library of Congress, A Guide to the
Spanish-American War Site: University of California, Spanish-American War Photographs Site: Duke University, George Percival Scriven: An American in Bohol, The Philippines, 1899-1901 Site: The Library of Congress, The Spanish-American War in Motion Pictures Site: West Point, Spanish-American War Battle and Campaign Maps Chapter 9Chapter 9: Early Twentieth Century Reforms and the Great War, 1902-1918Chapter 9 discusses the period after the Spanish-American War and the Philippine Insurrection when the United States became a member of the great power fraternity. With this elevated status came new territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific Ocean and requirements of administering those possessions. The United States was poised on the threshold of what would become the American Century. These strategic and political realities meant that the U.S. military would need to adjust its plans, missions, and forces to protect the nation’s interests. Yet the federal government cut military expenditures following the end of hostilities with Spain. The war with Spain also exposed weaknesses in organization and mobilization that hampered the creation of a modern Army that could maintain readiness in peace and expand during war. Unlike the Army, the U.S. Navy did not suffer such serious downsizing after the end of the Spanish-American War. Quite the contrary, it continued to modernize into a world-class naval force because of support from successive presidents, secretaries of the navy, and legislators in Congress. America’s other seaborne service, the Marine Corps, began its shift from shipboard security to constabulary and amphibious operations. Then a long, bloody war broke out in Europe in 1914, a conflict modern in its scope of destruction and participation. After watching for three years, the United States entered the First World War in April 1917 and fought until November 1918. Mobilizing for war and fighting in this conflict put severe strains on the U.S. military as it expanded from 200,000 men to more than six million over the next twenty months. In the end, at least 60 million people from dozens of nations served in uniform, and as many as 10 million combatants died and another 20 million lived with physical and psychological scars. Yet, the war can likewise be seen as transitional in pointed to future doctrines, policies, tactics, and strategies. New applications of technology appeared in all areas of the conflict, and several key individuals in the U.S. military embraced those modern technologies during the war and laid foundations for their use in the coming decades. In this chapter, students will learn about U.S. Army reforms to solve problems the service experience during the Spanish-American War while the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps expanded their roles to project American force and protect national interests. Ultimately, this chapter will focus on the causes and conduct of American entrance into the First World War. Emphasis will be placed on how Americans applied new tactics and technologies in combat in Europe. Chapter 9 (1902-1918) GlossaryAviation- The use of aircraft as a tool of war. Despite some advancements, early use of aviation remained in its infancy before 1918, primarily used in reconnaissance, air-to-air, and small-scale bombing roles. Amalgamation Controversy- A disagreement between American Expeditionary Forces and their Allies during World War I over who would control the newly-arrived U.S. forces, with the Americans demanding freedom of command. Arguments between American General Pershing, French Marshal Foch, and British Field Marshal Haig lasted until September 1918, but U.S. forces remained largely autonomous for most of the war, avoiding being melded into Allied units. amphibious operations- Arole largely filled by the U.S. Marine Corps, including assaulting enemy beaches. With the more expansive global presence of American forces after the Spanish-American War, amphibious operations became an important aspect of defending U.S. interests afar. American Expeditionary Forces (AEF)- U.S. forces deployed to Europe during World War I between 1917-1919; led by Army General John J. Pershing. Armistice- The cessation of hostilities during World War I between the Allied and Central Powers. Fighting ended on November 11, 1918 – on the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month. Battle of Belleau Wood- A hotly contested close-quarters battle in June 1918 that pitted two U.S. Army divisions and a Marine brigade against German forces entrenched in a dense one-half mile square forest. The Marines suffered 5,000 casualties from the 9,500 who entered the battle, and along with the purported respectful German nickname for the Marines – Teufelhunden (Devil Dogs) – Belleau Wood has become a significant part of USMC mythology. Battle of Cantigny- The first successful offensive in France for the American Expeditionary Forces on May 28, 1918. With the support of French armor, the US 1st Division’s 28th Regiment wrested control of the town of Cantigny from the Germans. American victory rehabilitated the somewhat poor reputation of the AEF’s fighting capability to that point, but at a price: casualties totaled over 1,000 of the 4,000 men in the 28th Regiment. capital ships- Large naval vessels considered to be the premier ships afloat, oftentimes by the early twentieth century all-big-gun battleships. With a pair of USS South Carolina-class battleships coming on line in 1909 in response to the British Royal Navy’s construction of the HMS Dreadnought, the Americans entered into a naval arms race, also spurring a similar expansion of the Imperial Japanese navy. chief of staff- Conceived of by Secretary of War Elihu Root and put into effect by Congress in 1903, the chief of staff replaced the position of commanding general. In an attempt to centralize power, the chief of staff and became the titular head of the Army, directed the General Staff, and served as the principal military advisor in the War Department. chemical weapons- First used in 1915 at Ypres, Belgium and Loos, France by the Germans, the Allies developed them for their own use as well. Often delivered by artillery shell, chlorine, phosgene, or mustard gas clung to the ground and caused eventual asphyxiation and potential death to those not wearing protective gas masks. In total gas attacks claimed the lives of over 100,000 soldiers and affected 1.3 million more during the war. counterinsurgency- Operations to counter rebellions or civil unrest. For the first two decades of the twentieth-century, American forces undertook counterinsurgency efforts in disparate areas of Latin America. Operations in the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Nicaragua, Mexico, and Haiti were attempts to bring order to the nations, build government infrastructures, construct military bases, protect American investments, deter foreign intrusions, and quell revolution. combined arms operations- The use of multiple weapons systems – artillery, aircraft, tanks, and infantry – together to attain specific objectives. While pioneered mainly by the British and French during World War I, the first American use of combined arms operations came during the Battle of St. Mihiel on September 12, 1918. Though not consistently employed together during WWI, post-war combined arms doctrine that utilized tanks and aircraft more evolved to the point of maturity during WWII. constabulary force- The role undertaken by the US Marine Corps following the Spanish-American War of 1898 and imperial interests abroad. With their capabilities of assaulting enemy beaches the Marines could maintain an American presence around the world and essentially police the new empire, leading to counterinsurgency operations. convoy- The use of multiple ships sailing together across the open seas. Grievous losses during World War I on the merchant fleet by German U-boats during World War I forced the Navy to better protect their supply system. In response, Vice Admiral William S. Sims suggested ordering the formation of larger Allied convoys in 1917 alongside US destroyers and other anti-submarine vessels in the convoy system, rather than the individual ships or small groups that had been making the trans-Atlantic crossings to that point. doughboy- A popular nickname during World War I for American soldiers. The many supposed origins of the term are said to derive from the Mexican War in the 1840s. It supposedly references how the soldiers cooked their flour-based food around their bayonets, resembling a doughnut; the clay used to polish buttons on Army uniforms made the buttons resemble clay when wet; or the Mexican dust on soldiers’ uniforms made them look similar to adobe buildings, a word sounding phonetically similar to “doughboy.” Josephus Daniels- (1862-1948), Secretary of the Navy and reformer of the institution. A southern political supporter of Woodrow Wilson, the president appointed Daniels to head the Navy in 1913. Understanding the threat of German U-boats, he de-emphasized the construction of new battleships in favor of more destroyers and anti-submarine vessels. George Dewey- (1837-1917), A hero of the Spanish-American War, Admiral Dewey was the first president of the General Board of the Navy in 1900, the major policy-making organization for the service. Through his reforms the Navy slowly centralized its many bureaus – such as Ordnance, Navigation, Steam Engineering, Construction and Repair – and forced new and innovative thinking among its leaders. Ferdinand Foch- (1851-1929), Marshal of France during World War I and supreme commander of all Allied armies. His desire to see American troops quickly blended into the Franco-British line caused discord between himself and American Expeditionary Forces leader General John J. Pershing, leading to the Amalgamation Controversy. Gallipoli Campaign- The April 1915 assault on the Turkish peninsula of Gallipoli by an Allied coalition of Australian, New Zealand, and British troops. In an attempt to take the capital city of Istanbul by way of the landing at Gallipoli, the operations became a disaster when superior Turkish artillery positions overlooking the landing beaches kept the Allied pinned down, eventually into a stalemate. A lack of proper combined arms capabilities made repeated attempts end in failure. General Staff Act- Designed by Secretary of War Elihu Root and passed by Congress in 1903, it effectively helped to modernize and professionalize the US Army. The act created a General Staff of forty-five officers assigned to the War Department and replaced the Army’s commanding general with a chief of staff. It also mandated that the chief of staff could serve no more than four years and that all officers rotate between staff and line billets lasting at most four years. George W. Goethals- (1858-1928), an Army Corps of Engineer colonel ordered by President Theodore Roosevelt to finish the Panama Canal. A man of considerable managerial experience, with his leadership the project was completed in 1914, two years ahead of schedule. Goethals later headed the Division of Purchase, Storage and Traffic for the US Army during WWI. John D. Long- (1838-1915), Secretary of the Navy from 1897 to 1902, Long helped make the US Navy the fourth most powerful naval force in the world. A reformer, he centralized the Navy’s administrative power by creating the General Board of the Navy in 1900, and with the help of Admiral George Dewey he reigned in the traditional autonomy of separate bureaus. Mexican Punitive Expedition- The U.S. Army operation to capture Francisco “Pancho” Villa, a revolutionary leader in Mexico who crossed into New Mexico with a band of followers in March 1916 and killed 18 Americans. Led by General John J. Pershing, the Expedition failed to capture Villa. Fearing war with Mexico, President Woodrow Wilson ended it in February 1917. Militia Act of 1903- Also known as the Dick Act, stipulated that the federal government would pay for equipping, arming, and training the National Guard, and that Regular Army officers would guarantee their readiness and standardization by conducting routine inspections of National Guard units. John J. Pershing- (1860-1948), As a Brigadier General Pershing led the 1916 Mexican Punitive Expedition. Beginning in 1917, with the American entrance into World War I, he commanded the American Expeditionary Forces as a general. He became embroiled in the Amalgamation Controversy, wherein he refused to allow the British and French to command US units. He espoused a tactical doctrine of “open warfare” that favored masses of fast-moving troops over open ground. Pershing’s outdated concept did not account for technology. logistics- The procurement, supply, and maintenance of military material. As a result of the failure of the logistics system in the Spanish-American War Secretary of War Elihu Root’s reforms sought to solve the Army’s wartime problems. Major General George W. Goethals also attempted to streamline the US logistics system during WWI, but met resistance from the entrenched system of bureau chiefs who opposed centralized control that threatened their power. Lost Battalion – The nickname for the 554 American soldiers of the 77th Division that were surrounded and repeatedly attacked by German forces during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive in October 1918. The Americans survived the ordeals but suffered terrible casualties. RMS Lusitania- A British luxury liner sunk by a German U-boat on May 7, 1915. Of the nearly 1,200 killed, 128 were Americans, enraging the still-neutral US nation. The resultant uproar caused President Woodrow Wilson to issue an ultimatum in July 1915 that pressured the Germans to restrict submarine warfare until 1917. machine gun- A magazine, drum, or belt-fed weapon capable of high rates of fire. Their wide usage by all belligerents in World War I caused high numbers of casualties – upwards of thirty to fifty percent of an assaulting force’s manpower – not seen in pre-industrial war. Second Battle of the Marne- The last German effort to break through Allied lines on the Western Front. Fighting lasted from July 15 to August 6, 1918 with Allied and German forces suffering high casualties. A turning point, for the rest of the war the Allies remained on the offensive. medicine- Substances or methods used in curing physical or mental ailments. Following the high number of non-combat deaths in the Spanish-American War, the U.S. Army and the War Department made improvements in medicine that allowed the Army’s Medical Corps to provide more adequate medical care in the Latin America interventions and WWI. Meuse-Argonne Offensive- Fought between September 26 and November 11, 1918, a Franco-American offensive that forced Germany to the negotiating table, leading to an armistice on November 11, 1918. National Defense Act of 1916- Enlarged the U.S. Army and National Guard peacetime numbers, combined the National Guard, Army Reserve, and Regular Army into the Army of the United States during wartime, and created the Reserved Officer Training Corps. nationalism- An ideological devotion to one’s nation, often emphasizing shared history, ethnic background, worldview, or common interests. Nationalism amongst many Europeans at the start of WWI inspired visions of battlefield glories, territorial expansion, or political independence, partially leading to a rush to war. Naval Act of 1916 - Enlarged and modernized the US Navy. Allowed for the creation of the world’s most powerful fleet, calling for the construction of four battleships and four battle cruisers over a three year period, representing the largest expansion program to date for the navy. neutrality- The non-participation during war in either open fighting or declared alliances, such as America’s position during World War I until their entrance into the war in April 1917. “no man’s land”- The hellish landscape between opposing trench lines during World War I, often marked by artillery craters, barbed wire, devoid of vegetation, and inherently dangerous due to pre-registered artillery and prepared lanes of machine gun fire. open warfare- American General John Pershing’s tactical doctrine that favored masses of fast-moving troops over open ground, based upon the belief that aggressiveness and marksmanship could win the day. Eschewing trench warfare that allowed for limited mobile operations, Pershing’s outdated open warfare concept did not account for technological developments that made such actions costly in the face of massed artillery and machine gun fire. “over the top”- The act of assaulting soldiers during World War I of attacking across no man’s land. Climbing out of protective trenches required going “over the top” of the parapets to attack the enemy trench network. Paris Peace Conference- The 1919 conference where the Treaty of Versailles was decided upon that decided the settlement of WWI. Plattsburgh Movement- Begun in Plattsburgh, New York, from 1915 to 1917 more than 20,000 American citizens received officer training in camps across the United States to increase the level of preparedness for war. Progressivism- A movement beginning in the late nineteenth and into the twentieth century by people who wished to impose order and bring efficiency to business, education, politics, and other areas of modern life. Elihu Root launched progressive reforms to modernize and build a more efficient U.S. military, and presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson exhibited progressive paternalism in their Latin America policies. racism and race relations- A prevalent in late-19th and early-20th century society, institutionalized racism relegated many African Americans to support positions in the military. Root Reforms- Progressive reforms by Secretary of War Elihu Root beginning in 1899 to prepare the military better for war following problems in the Spanish-American War. Root battled the entrenched decentralized authority of the U.S. military through three key improvements: creating a General Staff and Chief of Staff, establishing new education programs, and forming a working relationship between the regular army and the National Guard. Theodore Roosevelt- (1858-1919), Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1987-1898), hero of the Spanish-American War, two-term American president (1901-1909). Believing in America’s greatness, Roosevelt helped to expand the Navy, believing that a strong fleet gave him the “big stick” he believed necessary to reinforce American power in the world. Roosevelt Corollary- An update of the 1823 Monroe Doctrine by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904. It threatened American military action in response to any European military expansion or political interference in the western hemisphere, with an emphasis on the Caribbean. Roosevelt espoused a progressive belief that American prosperity and democracy could be exported to other regions, leading to American interest in Latin America. Battle of St. Mihiel- Beginning on September 12, 1918 and lasting a week, the battle pitted US and French forces against Germans, constituting a victory for the Allies. The first use of combined arms for the American Expeditionary Forces, the Americans took relatively light casualties while the Germans suffered 16,000 captured. The somewhat easy victory owed mostly to a German withdrawal already underway. William S. Sims- (1858-1936), An American Vice Admiral who in 1917 suggested the formation of larger Allied convoys when crossing the Atlantic Ocean. The WWI merchant fleet’s grievous losses caused by German U-boats led to Sims’s system of US destroyers and other anti-submarine vessels sailing alongside supply ships organized for mutual protection. Selective Service Act- Passed by Congress on May 18, 1917, a program of universal conscription during World War I. By the armistice in 1918, nearly 3 million had been conscripted into the U.S. military. Battle of Somme- Lasting from July 1 to November 18, 1916, this battle along the Somme River in northern France. Shockingly high numbers of casualties among all involved – 500,000 Germans to the Allies’ 620,000 – made the Somme one of the most symbolic battles of World War I, illustrating modern war’s capacity for destruction while making little headway to victory or peace for either side. strategic bombing- Dropping bombs from aircraft in order to attain strategic objectives. Targets could include factories, railroad, shipyards, and other logistic or war production facilities of strategic value. With its infancy in World War I, the relatively limited range and weight capacity of bombers constrained their impact on the war. tanks- Armored vehicles that make use of tractor crawler-type undercarriage, first debuting in 1916 during World War I. Treaty of Versailles- The negotiated peace settlement that ended World War I, taking effect in 1920. The most significant component was the formation of the League of Nations, yet the United States never passed the treaty and thus never joined the League. trench warfare- The use of excavated defensive lines, oftentimes with complicated networks of front-line trenches, support trenches, dug outs, machine gun emplacements, sniper hides, anti-personnel obstacles, and supporting artillery. World War I quickly broke down into a stalemate of trench warfare beginning in 1914 and persisting throughout much of the war. unrestricted submarine warfare- The use of submarines to target all vessels seen as a threat, including ones flying the flags of neutral nations. The Germans undertook the method in February 1917 in order to blockade the French and British home fronts by disrupting the neutral American shipping that was supplying the two nations. Doing so angered the American public and leadership and helped lead to the United States entering World War I. Unterseeboot (U-boat)- Literally “undersea boat,” U-boats were German submarines used extensively during World War I and II. Responsible for sinking hundreds of British, French, and American vessels with torpedoes, they harassed the vital supply link between the United States and its allies during both world wars. Pancho Villa- (1878-1923), Francisco “Pancho” Villa, a revolutionary leader in Mexico who crossed into New Mexico with a band of followers in March 1916 and killed 18 Americans. Led by General John J. Pershing, the Mexican Punitive Expedition failed to capture Villa. Fearing war with Mexico, President Woodrow Wilson ended it in February 1917. Battle of Verdun- February 21 to December 18, 1916, it was an attempt by the Germans to win a decisive victory, smashing French forces in northeast France, forcing them to exhaust themselves, and cutting Britain off from the continent. The Germans never controlled all of Verdun, however, and by battle’s end combined casualties totaled over one million. War Industries Board- Started by President Woodrow Wilson shortly after the United States entered World War I in April 1917. The board extended the federal government’s influence over all parts of American social and economic life by centralizing control of wartime manufacturing into the hands of a government committee. It became the basis for government management during the New Deal and war mobilization for World War II. Western Front- The theater of operations during World War I that included much of France and Belgium, distinct from the southern and eastern theaters. Woodrow Wilson- (1856-1924), Two term US president (1913-1921), in office during WWI. His progressivism influenced interventions in Latin America, wartime expansion of government, and a peacetime vision that included a failed attempt to join the League of Nations. Chapter 9: Early Twentieth Century Reforms and the Great War, 1902-1918Abrahamson, James. American Arms for a New Century: The Making of a Great Military Power. New York: Free Press, 1981. Beaver, Daniel R. Modernizing the American War Department: Change and Continuity in a Turbulent Era, 1885-1920. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2006. Chambers, John Whiteclay, II. To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to America. New York: Free Press, 1987. Coffman, Edward M. The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. Feuer, A. B. The U.S. Navy in World War I: Combat at Sea and in the Air. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999. Grotelueschen,
Mark E. The AEF Way of War: The American Army and Combat in World War I. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Hendrix, Henry J.
Theodore Roosevelt’s Naval Diplomacy: The U.S. Navy and the Birth of the American Century. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2009. Keene, Jennifer D. World War I: The American Soldier Experience. Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 2011. Kennedy, David M. Over Here: The First World War and American Society. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980. Langley, Lester D. The Banana Wars: United States Intervention in the Caribbean, 1898-1934. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1985. Kuehn, John T. America’s First General Staff: A Short History of the Rise and Fall of General Board of the Navy, 1900-1950. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2017. Lengel,
Edward G. Thunder and Flames: Americans in the Crucible of Combat 1917–1918. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2015. Rossano, Geoffrey L., and Thomas Wildenberg. Striking the Hornet’s Nest: Naval Aviation and the Origins of Strategic Bombing
in World War I. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2015. Sammons, Jeffrey T., and John H. Morrow, Jr. Harlem’s Rattlers and the Great War: The Undaunted 369th Regiment and the
African American Quest for Equality. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2014. Smyth, Donald. Pershing General of the Armies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986. Williams, Chad L. Torchbearers of Democracy: African American Soldiers and World War I. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010. Chapter 9: Early Twentieth-Century Reforms and the Great War, 1902–1918Beaver, Daniel R. Modernizing the American War Department: Change and Continuity in a Turbulent Era, 1885–1920. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2006. Coffman, Edward M. The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I. Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1998. Epstein, Katherine C. Torpedo: Inventing the Military-Industrial Complex in the United States and Great Britain. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013. Hewes, James E. From Root to McNamara: Army Organization and Administration, 1900–1963. Washington: Center for Military History, 1975. Holler, I. B. Ideas and Weapons: Exploration of the Aerial Weapon by the United States during World War I. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953. Keene, Jennifer. Doughboys, the Great War and the Remaking of America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001. Nenninger, Timothy. The Leavenworth School and the Old Army: Education, Professionalism, and the Officer Corps of the United States Army, 1881–1918. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1978. Owen, Peter. To the Limits of Endurance: A Battalion of Marines in the Great War. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2007. Reardon, Carol. Soldiers and Scholars: The U.S. Army and the Uses of Military History, 1865–1920. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990. Sherry, Michael S. The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987. Spector, Ronald H. Professors of War: The Naval War College and the Development of the Naval Profession. Newport: Naval War College Press, 1977. Smythe, Donald. Pershing: General of the Armies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986. Trask, David F. The AEF and Coalition Warmaking, 1917–1918. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993. Wintermute, Bobby. Public Health and the U.S. Military: A History of the U.S. Army Medical Department, 1818–1917. London: Routledge, 2010. Zimmer, Phyllis A. The Neck of the Bottle: George W. Goethals and the Reorganization of the U.S. Army Supply System, 1917–1918. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1992. Chapter 9: 1902-1918Site: firstworldwar.com: A Multimedia History of World War One Site: The World War I Document Archive Site: Citizendium Entry for World War I Bibliography Site: PBS’s The Great War and the Shaping of the Twentieth Century Site: The Doughboy Center Site: Library of Congress, American Leaders Speak Project Site: Library of Congress, The Stars and Stripes: The American Soldiers’ Newspaper of World War, 1918-1919 Site: North Carolinians and the Great War Site: University of Minnesota World War I and II Posters and Postcards Site:
Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library eLibrary Site: On Point: The Journal of Army History article, “Fighting for Respect: African-American Soldiers in World War One” Site: A Sailor’s Diary during World War I aboard the Submarine Chaser 177 Site: Photos of the Great War: World War I Image Archive Site: The First Division Museum at Cantigny Site: National World War I Museum Site: West Point, World War I Battle and Campaign Maps Chapter 10Chapter 10: The Interwar Period, 1918-1941Chapter 10 discusses the years in between the two world wars, 1918 to 1941. It focuses on two intertwined trends that effected the United States military and its lack of preparation for the war that would eventually come knocking at the nation’s door in 1941. The first trend can be seen in the international arena where victorious French, British, and American leaders hammered out the Treaty of Versailles and established the League of Nations in 1920. The treaty determined the fate of Germany. The belligerent nation was required to accept responsibility for the war, pay reparations to the Entente Powers, and disarm its military forces. Thereafter, most leaders and people in France, Great Britain, and the United States saw little need for maintaining expensive armed forces. Into the late 1920s and the early 1930s, these nations made several additional attempts to ensure peace by controlling production of weapons and arbitrating disputes among nations. Their efforts yielded temporary solutions that could not, however, prevent the slide toward another global conflict by the end of the 1930s. The second trend occurred as the United States military demobilized after World War I. The subsequent stagnation of the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps was closely tied to public and Congressional support, entities which both grew isolationist in the post-war years. The onset of the Great Depression in 1929 caused further reductions in military budgets and exacerbated anti-military sentiments. New weapons systems developed at a slow pace in this austere environment. Strategic planning matched neither the nation’s military capabilities nor its foreign policy priorities. Meanwhile, the depression’s effects expanded to Europe and Asia, triggering the rise of a resurgent Germany and expansionist Italy and Japan in the 1930s. These nations, with their growing military power, increasingly threatened a tenuous global peace. In this chapter, students will learn about the political and fiscal restraints on the U.S. military during the 1920s and into the Great Depression. A discussion of the evolution or armor, strategic bombing, naval aviation, and amphibious capabilities and doctrine highlights the analysis of American strategic plans in response to increasing threats on the land, in the air, and at sea. Ultimately, this chapter sets the scene for the gradual American slide into the Second World War. Chapter 10 (1918-1941) Glossary“Bomber Mafia”- An influential group of U.S. Army Air Corps air-power prophets during the interwar period who advocated for an expanded bomber fleet as a strategic tool, including Henry Arnold, Carl Spaatz, James Doolittle, and Curtis LeMay. Adna R. Chaffee, Jr.- (1884-1941), A U.S. Army officer known as an armor warfare proponent. During the interwar period Chaffee championed the tank and helped to develop U.S. Army armor doctrine. Collective Security- The protection of territory and sovereignty of nations against external threats through an alliance system where an attack on one is considered a threat to all; one of President Woodrow Wilson’s main goals in the League of Nations. Giulio Douhet- (1869-1930), One of the most instrumental interwar period military theorists, the Italian general’s 1920 book Command of the Air outlined a strategic bombing doctrine that influenced American air power advocates. Destroyers-for-Bases Agreement- A late 1940 deal during World War II between the neutral United States and Great Britain to provide fifty obsolete U.S. Navy destroyers to the British in return for several bases in the Caribbean and South America. Earl H. Ellis- (1880-1923), A U.S. Marine Corps lieutenant colonel, “Pete” Ellis developed what would become the operational level of American amphibious operations in the Pacific Theater during World War II included in the War Plan ORANGE two decades before the conflict began. Fall of France- The German victory over the French military in World War II after only six weeks of fighting. A June 22, 1940 armistice agreement gave German occupation forces direct control of northern France while a puppet government based in Vichy controlled the rest. The French surrender also left Great Britain with no major allies against Germany and no considerable obstacles but the English Channel between the Third Reich and British allies. J.F.C. Fuller- (1878-1966), A British Army officer and along with B.H. Liddell Hart one of the most influential foreign advocates of armor operations during the interwar period. Great Depression- The economic depression beginning with the stock market crash in America in the United States at the end of October 1929. Quickly creating worldwide financial problems, the Depression also markedly reduced budgets for the U.S. military in the interwar period which negatively affected strategic planning and slowed weapons developments. B.H. Liddell Hart- (1895-1970), A British Army officer, and along with J.F.C. Fuller one of the most influential advocates of armor operations during the interwar period. Isolationism- The policy of political and/or strategic non-alignment in peacetime or war. Prevalent through much of American history, the country long remained reticent to declare alliances or consider binding agreements. Isolationist sentiment contributed to America’s refusal to join the League of Nations after World War I. Invasion of Manchuria- An indicator of an aggressive Japanese empire, Japan’s conquest of Manchuria in 1931 on manufactured pretext led to extensive depredations and a puppet regime that lasted the duration of World War II. Invasion of Poland- One of the earliest aggressive acts in Europe of World War II, Germany’s conquest of Poland began from the west on September 1, 1939 followed by an invasion from the east by Soviet Union forces on September 17. The combined onslaught defeated the Polish military by October. League of Nations- An international organization formed after World War I in 1920 with the intent of maintaining global stability by arbitrating disputes before hostilities started, as well as through collective security. Lend-Lease- An American program begun in March 1941 that provided military supplies and aid to allied nations to help fight the Axis powers during World War II. Douglas MacArthur- (1880-1964), One of the most controversial U.S. Army officers of the twentieth-century. Army chief of staff from 1930-1935, MacArthur’s overzealous nature contributed to the public relations fiasco of the Bonus Army March in 1932. His advocacy of motorizing the army and mechanizing the Cavalry Branch helped modernize the U.S. military. George C. Marshall- (1880-1959), U.S. Army officer, chief of the War Plans Division in 1938 and promoted to brigadier general and chief of staff one year later. In that position Marshall made sweeping changes, including increasing the Army’s size, organizationally restructuring it, and modernizing the service. William “Billy” Mitchell- (1879-1936), A flamboyant, and sometimes insubordinate, U.S. Army officer who became one of the Army’s primary air power proponents during the interwar period. Eliciting support for the airplane’s destructive potential, Mitchell staged bombing tests in July 1920 that sank the captured German battleship Ostfriesland. William A. Moffett- (1869-1933), Senior U.S. Navy officer during the interwar period and the most notable proponent of naval aviation. National Defense Act of 1920- Did away with the idea of an expansible U.S. Army and organized it as three parts: the Regular Army, National Guard, and Reserves, while also continuing to support the Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) in colleges and universities. Neutrality Acts (1935, 1936, 1937)- Acts passed by the U.S. Congress to remain an isolationist nation during the interwar; stipulated that in the event of war, the United States prohibited the supply of American weapons, loans to belligerent nations, and travel by Americans on belligerent ships. Oil Embargo- President Franklin Roosevelt’s restriction on the American sale of oil to Japan in 1941 in order to deter Japanese expansion and growing power. ORANGE War Plan- Part of the American strategic plans in the interwar in the event of conflict, War Plan ORANGE dealt with war against Japan. George S. Patton, Jr.- (1885-1945), A promising young U.S. Army officer during the interwar and an advocate of armor doctrine and development. RAINBOW PLANS- A series of American strategic war plans approved by President Roosevelt before American entry into World War II that detailed the course of U.S. war efforts in a coalition on multiple fronts. Franklin Delano Roosevelt- (1882-1945), U.S. president from 1933 to 1945, responsible for leading the United States through much of the Great Depression and World War II. FDR capably balanced American neutrality and assistance to friendly European powers until the nation declared war against the Axis Powers following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Selective Training and Service Act (1940)- America’s first peacetime draft, passed in September 1940; required all American men aged 21 to 35 to register with local draft boards. Self-determination- The right of peoples to determine their own government systems without external compulsion; part of President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points and one of his two main goals in a post-WWI world. Strategic Bombing- Dropping bombs from aircraft in order to attain strategic objectives. Targets could include factories, railroad, shipyards, and other logistic or war production facilities of strategic value. Interwar period visionaries such as Giulio Douhet, Hugh Trenchard, and Brigadier General William “Billy” Mitchell theorized about the use of strategic bombing, having a direct influence on the extensive use of the method in World War II. tank- Armored vehicles that make use of tractor crawler-type undercarriage. First utilized in 1916 during World War I, interwar proponents such as Liddell Hart and Fuller in Great Britain and Chaffee in America developed armor doctrine that became crucial to the expanded use of tanks during World War II. Tripartite Pact- Agreement signed in September 1940 that unified Germany, Italy, and Japan. Tentative Manual for Landing Operations- A 1934 U.S. Marine Corps tactical manual that became the blueprint for all American amphibious operations in the Pacific and European Theaters during World War II. Treaty of Versailles- The June 1919 multilateral peace treaty that ended World War I, outlining harsh reparations for Germany and a multinational organization in the form of the League of Nations. The failure of the treaty to pass the U.S. Senate based upon the League of Nations issue meant that the United States sought a separate peace with Germany. Carl Vinson- (1883-1981), U.S. Representative from Georgia and a staunch advocate for a strengthened military during the interwar period, especially the Navy as evidenced by the 1934 Vinson-Trammel Act. XB-17 Flying Fortress- The prototype version of the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, one of America’s key strategic bombers during World War II. Washington Naval Arms Limitation Treaty (1922)- A five power treaty coming out of the Washington Naval Conference of 1921 that sought to prevent a naval arms race. Great Britain, United States, Japan, Italy, and France agreed to reduce the size, number, and armament of their capital ships. Woodrow Wilson- (1856-1924), Two term US president from 1913 to 1921, and in office for the duration of World War I. Wilson’s progressivism influenced much of his presidency, including a failed attempt to join the League of Nations. Chapter 10: Transformations in the Interwar Years, 1918-1941Bickel, Keith. Mar Learning: The Marine Corps’ Development of Small Wars Doctrine, 1915–1940. Boulder, CO:
Westview Press, 2000. Budreau, Lisa M, Bodies of War: World War I and the Politics of Commemoration in America, 1919–1933. New York: New York University Press, 2011. Coffman, Edward M. The Regulars: The American Army, 1898-1941. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Johnson, David E. Fast Tanks and Heavy Bombers: Innovation in the U.S. Army, 1917-1945. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998. Kuehn, John T. Agents of Innovation: The General Board and the Design of the Fleet That
Defeated the Japanese Navy. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2008. Linn, Brian, Guardians of Empire: The U.S. Army in the Pacific, 1902-1940. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1997. Matheny, Michael. Carrying the War to the Enemy: American Operational Art to 1945. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2011. This revisionist work challenges previous histories that assumed that the U.S. military learned its operational art on the fly in the two world wars. Matheny, however, argues that the U.S. military (air, sea, and ground components) developed its own operational art – the ability to conduct battles and campaigns to achieve strategic objectives. He particularly points to efforts by some senior American military leaders to develop combine arms and joint operations. Miller,
Edward S. War Plan Orange: The Strategy to Defeat the Japanese, 1897-1945. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1991. Moy, Timothy. War Machines: Transforming Technologies in the U.S. Military 1920–1940. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2002. Muth, Jörg. Command Culture: Officer Education in the U.S. Army and the German Armed Forces, 1901–1940, and the Consequences for World War II. Denton: University of North Texas Press, 2011. Prange, Gordon W, with Daniel M Goldstein and Katherine V. Dillon. At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor. New York: Penguin, 1981. Renda, Mary. Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915–1940. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. Trimble, William F. Admiral William A. Moffett: Architect of Naval Aviation. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994. Ulbrich, David J. Preparing for Victory: Thomas Holcomb and the Making of the Modern Marine Corps 1936-1943. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2011. Wildenberg, Thomas. Billy Mitchell’s War with the Navy: The Interwar Rivalry over Air Power. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2014. Chapter 10: Transformations in the Interwar Years, 1918–1941Dickson, Paul, and Thomas B. Allen The Bonus Army: An American Epic. New York: Walker and Company, 2004. Felker, CC Testing American Sea Power: U.S. Navy Strategic Exercises, 1923–1940College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2006. Hurley, Alfred F Billy Mitchell: Crusader for Air Power. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1975. Kuehn, John T Agents of Innovation: The General Board and the Design of the Fleet that Defeated the Japanese NavyAnnapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2008. MacIsaac, David. “Voices from the Central Blue: The Air Power Theorists.” In Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age, edited by Peter Paret. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986. Murray, Williamson, and Allan R. Millett, eds Military Innovation in the Interwar Period. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Mauer, Mauer Aviation in the U.S. Army, 1919–1939. Washington: Office of Air Force History, 1987. Muth, Jörg Command Culture: Officer Education in the U.S. Army and the German Armed Forces, 1901–1940, and the Consequences for World War II. Denton: University of North Texas Press, 2011. Moy, Timothy War Machines: Transforming Technologies in the U.S. Military, 1920–1940. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2001. Pogue, Forrest George C. Marshall: Education of a General, 1800–1939. Vol. 1. New York: Viking, 1964. Winton, Harold R., and David R. Mets, eds The Challenge of Change: Military Institutions and New Realities, 1918–1941Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000. Chapter 10: 1918-1939Site: Aftermath: When the Boys Came Home Site: National Archives, Our Documents: President Wilson’s Fourteen Points Site: American
Rhetoric: “Woodrow Wilson’s Final Address in Support of the League of Nations” Site: Global Security: “War Plan Rainbow” Site: League of Nations Photo Archive Site: United Nations Office at Geneva, League of Nations Chronology Site: History of the League of
Nations Site: U.S. Army Center of Military History Online Bookshelf, The Interwar Years Site: United States Combined Arms Center, Combined Arms Research Library Site: The American Fighting Vehicle Database Site: Mount Holyoke College, Vincent Ferraro, The Ruth C. Lawson Professor of International Politics: “Documents on the Interwar Period” Site: Sam Houston State University Professor Website, “The U.S. Navy in the Interwar Period” Site: Naval Historical Center’s United States Naval History: A Bibliography Site: Hyperwar: Advanced Base Operations in Micronesia Chapter 11Chapter 11: Mobilizing for a Second World War, 1941-1943Chapter 11 examines the first years of American involvement in the Second World War, 1941 to 1943. By the end of 1941, bloody conflicts had engulfed Europe for more than two years and East Asia for a decade. The Axis powers – Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Militarist Japan – expanded to dominate vast swaths of territory on three continents. It looked like they would continue to achieve victory after victory. Against them stood a hobbled British Empire, a devastated Soviet Union, and a divided China. Since the outbreak of war in 1939, the United States of America gradually provided food, vehicles, weapons, and financial support to these nations fighting the Axis powers, but most Americans remained unwilling to enter the conflict. Isolationist tendencies still held sway over public opinion even in late 1941. That the United States eventually entered the Second World War should not have surprised any Americans. Tensions between Japan and the United States over commercial trade, immigration policy, natural resources, and strategic influenced had simmered since 1898. In Europe, fears of Germany’s seeming insatiable thirst for power and territory increasingly threatened American and Allied interests in the Atlantic. Nevertheless, the specific target of Pearl Harbor caught the Americans off guard on December 7, 1941. The story of the United States in the Second World War is one of a suddenly awakened giant that halted the Axis expansion before throwing the enemy back on their heels. After an inauspicious start, decisive American victories in the Pacific came at Midway in June 1942 and on Guadalcanal by February 1943. In Europe, however, Americans made slow progress in North Africa in 1942 and then on Sicily and Italy in 1943. Although each of these campaigns almost resulted in disaster, the United States helped shift momentum toward the Allies. In this chapter, students will learn about how the “Day of Infamy” happened. Emphasis will be placed on the Battles at Midway and Guadalcanal as twin turning points in the Pacific War in 1942. The European Theater is only considered in this chapter and students will learn about how the United States maintained a logistical lifeline to Europe by winning the Battle of the Atlantic. Key to that story is the successes and shortcomings of harnessing resources on the American home front to support a global war effort. Finally, this chapter discusses the American operational learning curve that led to victories in North Africa in 1942 and on Sicily and Italy in 1943-1944. Chapter 11 (1941-1943) Glossary“4-F” Classification- A World War II draft registration classification. Those deemed 4-F were disqualified from the draft if they did not meet physical, emotion, intellectual, or moral standards. Afrika Korps- Most famously led by German General Erwin Rommel, German desert forces that operated in North Africa during World War II. Surrendered on May 13, 1943 to Allied forces after the American victory at El Guettar stranded the Afrika Korps near Tunis. Anzio, amphibious landing- The January 22, 1944 Allied landing during the Italian Campaign of World War II in a bid to breach the Gustav Line and take Rome. Poor planning saw the Allies fortify the beachhead against a German counterattack rather than push inland. The time lapse allowed German Field Marshal Albert Kesselring to reinforce Anzio, bottling up the Allies in a 20 mile wide by 15 mile deep beachhead for months. Atlantic, Battle of the- From September 1939 through 1945, the Germans attempted to disrupt the transport of war materials from the United States across the Atlantic to the European theater. At its height in 1942, German U-boats sunk 400 American ships, 2 million tons of shipping, and claimed the 8,400 merchant seaman lives. By 1943 losses gradually lessened as prodigious American construction of Liberty Ships and more aggressive anti-U-boat activities shifted the battle’s momentum. Arizona, USS- An American battleship, part of the U.S. Fleet in the Pacific Ocean, sunk on December 7, 1941 during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The fatal Japanese bomb detonated one of the ship’s ammunition magazines, causing catastrophic secondary explosions. 1,177 of the 1,400 men aboard died, almost half of all American deaths during the attack. AVALANCHE, Operation- The main Allied operation of the initial invasion of Italy during World War II, beginning near Salerno on September 9, 1943. Anglo-American forces landed but met a determined German defense. Logistical problems left the Allied line weak and geographical difficulties hampered movement. After the Americans defeated a September 16 German counterattack, Allied units began to move inland, moving northwest up the Italian boot. “Bataan Death March”- The forced march in early 1942 of the more than 75,000 American and Filipino combatants who surrendered the Philippines to the Japanese after six months of resistance. Japanese guards brutally killed soldiers who fell out of the forced six day forced march of seventy miles to a prisoner of war camp. Merciless tropical heat and ahe malnourished state of the exhausted soldiers claimed at least 18,000 lives, further inspiring racially charged hatred that the Americans felt toward the Japanese. Omar N. Bradley- (1893-1981), U.S. Army general officer during World War II in North Africa and Europe, known for his unpretentious bearing and highly popular status among soldiers. The last Army officer to hold the rank of five star general. Mark W. Clark- (1896-1984), U.S. Army general officer, commander of the U.S. 5th Army that invaded Italy during Operation Avalanche. His leadership capabilities and planning during World War II remain controversial. Coral Sea, Battle of May 4-8, 1942. The first naval battle fought completely over the horizon solely by aircraft from the USS Lexington and Yorktown that sank a Japanese light carrier and crippled two heavy carriers at the cost of sinking the Lexington and badly damaging the Yorktown. A tactical victory for the Japanese, Coral Sea constituted an American victory at the strategic level, though, as it kept Port Moresby safe and knocked important Japanese carriers out of crucial combat operations at Midway the next month. “Doolittle Raid”- (1890-1969), An April 18, 1942 bombing raid on Tokyo and other Japanese cities by American B-25 medium bombers. Led by Lieutenant Colonel James H. “Jimmy” Doolittle of the U.S. Army Air Corps, the mission was meant to buoy sagging American morale. Transported by aircraft carrier, the sixteen bombers did little physical damage but struck a blow to Japan’s sense of security of their home islands. “Double V”- World War II campaign to achieve victory over racism abroad and racism in the United States. Dwight D. Eisenhower- (1890-1969), U.S. Army general officer during World War II and acting supreme commander of Allied forces. Elected president in 1953, Eisenhower served two terms, ending in 1961, warning in his farewell address about the perils of the military-industrial complex. El Guettar, Battle of- A battle from March 23 to April 7, 1943 in southern Tunisia between Italian and German units and the U.S. Army II Corps led by Lieutenant General George S. Patton, Jr. The forced withdrawal of Axis forces after the battle toward Tunis spelled the end of German and Italian presence in North Africa, surrendering fully on May 13, 1943 and effectively ending the Afrika Corps. Executive Order 9066- The February 19, 1942 decree from U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt mandating that Japanese-Americans in the western United States relocate to internment camps due to popular fear of sabotage or subversion. Lacking due process of law, the forced relocation violated the constitutional rights of the majority of those detained who could claim American citizenship. Frank Jack Fletcher- (1885-1973), U.S. Navy admiral, in command of Task Force 17 during the Battle of Coral Sea and overall commander during Battle of Midway. A surface warfare admiral by training, Fletcher understood the importance of air power to modern naval war and used his aircraft to great effect during both battles. 442nd Regimental Combat Team- Japanese-American U.S. Army unit during World War II. In a desire to prove their loyalty to the United States, some 20,000 Japanese-Americans left the camps to join the military during the war. The 442nd became the most highly decorated infantry regiment in Army history. Grand Alliance- The alliance of the United States, United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union during World War II. A marriage of convenience, the Grand Alliance would tear apart over a myriad of issues at the end of World War II, turning the erstwhile allies into ideologies enemies during the Cold War. Guadalcanal, Naval Battle of- The naval component of the larger Guadalcanal Offensive, it began on November 13, 1942 when two quick clashes occurred near Savo Island between American ships and Japanese vessels attempting to resupply troops on the island of Guadalcanal. Due to the large number of ships sunk by both sides, the area off Guadalcanal was dubbed “Ironbottom Sound.” Gustav Line- The World War II German defensive network that ran across the Italian peninsula, from the western coast of Italy along the Garigliano and Rapido Rivers to the Apennine Mountains in central Italy. William F. Halsey- (1882-1959), Nicknamed “Bull,” U.S. Navy vice admiral who commanded the American fleet that launched B-25 medium bombers during the Doolittle Raid on April 18, 1942. Henderson Field- A Japanese-constructed airfield on the island of Guadalcanal, named after a Marine pilot killed during the Battle of Midway. HUSKY, Operation- The successful Allied invasion of Sicily during World War II, and the first major foray into an Axis power’s sovereign territory. Lasting from July 10 to August 17, 1943, American casualties totaled 2,900 killed, 6,400 wounded, and 600 captured, while the British suffered 12,600 casualties overall. The Axis lost 28,000 Germans and 145,000 Italians. Joint Chiefs of Staff- Interservice advisory body staffed by the highest-ranking officer of each branch of the military. The JCS advises the President, the Secretary of Defense, the National Security Council, and the Homeland Security Council on military matters, but does not create policy. It was born after the ACADIA conference in 1942, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt created an American advisory body. It was not an official body until the National Security Act of 1947. Kasserine Pass, Battle of- American defeat during World War II near Tunisia’s western border with Algeria, taking place from February 19-25, 1943. The battle revealed systemic problems for the Americans, including an inability of green troops to prepare for German armor, leadership that was situated too far behind the front lines, a lack of unity of command, and ineffectual use of combined arms. Albert Kesselring- (1885-1960), German Luftwaffe Field Marshal during World War II, commander in chief of all German forces in North Africa, Sicily, and Italy. His strategy of delay in the face of Allied pressure throughout the campaigns proved costly for American and British forces. Superior planning, shrewd tactics, and a clearly defined chain of command under Kesselring helped make German evacuations during these operations successful. Husband E. Kimmel- (1882-1968), U.S. Navy admiral, commander in chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet at the time of the December 7, 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. A rising star in the navy and well respected, the attack effectively ended his career, as he was seen as responsible for lack of preparation and errors of judgment. Kimmel lost his command in mid-December under charges of dereliction of duty, causing him to retire in March 1942. Ernest J. King- (1878-1956), U.S. Navy admiral during World War II, commander-in-chief of the U.S. Fleet and chief of naval operations, considered by many to be the chief architect of American victory in the Pacific and a master strategist. His dual-hatted position made him one of most powerful admirals in Navy history since he commanded American fleets at sea and controlled the Navy’s bureaucracy on land. Douglas MacArthur- (1880-1964), Returning to active duty in March 1941 as a lieutenant general and becoming commander of U.S. forces in the Far East, MacArthur was in charge of the defense of the Philippines when the Japanese invaded on December 22, 1941. Given ample warning, MacArthur did not give clear orders to prepare for an imminent attack, resulting in no effective American defense. In March 1942 during desperate fighting he left the Philippines altogether, leaving the American and Filipino forces to their fate. George C. Marshall- (1880-1959), U.S. Army officer, chief of the War Plans Division in 1938 and promoted to brigadier general and chief of staff one year later. In that position Marshall made sweeping changes, including increasing the Army’s size, organizationally restructuring it, and modernizing the service. Marshall created a more streamlined and efficient formulation of strategic planning and policy, important contributions to Allied victory during World War II. Midway, Battle of- A World War II naval battle between the U.S. and Imperial Japanese navies from 4 to 7 June 1942. Three aircraft carriers, the USS Enterprise, Hornet, and Yorktown in two separate task forces interdicted Japanese forces about 150 miles northeast of Midway. The most decisive naval battle of WWII, the Americans sunk three Japanese carriers and forced another to be scuttled – losses from which the Japanese navy never recovered – at the cost of the Americans losing the Yorktown. Bernard Law Montgomery- (1887-1976), The most well-known British general officer during World War II, the Field Marshal became notable initially for his victory against the Germans in North Africa at the Battle of El Alamein in November 1942. Master of the set-piece battle, Montgomery earned the reputation of stubbornly refusing to act without fastidious planning and preparation in advance. During Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of France in June 1944, he acted as the commander of Allied ground forces on the continent. Monte Cassino, Battles of- Four World War II battles lasting from 17 January until 18 May 1944; part of the Italian Campaign. Chester W. Nimitz- (1885-1966), U.S. Navy admiral, commander-in-chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet after Pearl Harbor and for the remainder of World War II. Aggressively-minded, he was responsible for acting on intelligence provided by the ULTRA program that broke the Japanese code, and using it to plan and carry out the Battle of Midway. From there Nimitz led the amphibious landings against Guadalcanal, Tarawa, and other island campaigns, as well as the submarine operations that destroyed the Japanese merchant marine. Chuichi Nagumo- (1887-1944), Japanese naval vice-admiral, the officer in charge of the Japanese forces that attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on 7 December 1941. His decision not to launch a third attack on the American base meant that the U.S. Navy was still able to operate in the Pacific. He was conclusively defeated as commander of the Japanese navy forces at the Battle of Midway in June 1942 and eventually relieved of command in 1943. Sent to defend Saipan, he committed suicide in July 1944 before the American invasion. George S. Patton, Jr.- (1885-1945), A U.S. Army general officer, well known for his brash demeanor and flamboyant nature. He took command of the American II Corps in March 1943 after the debacle at Kasserine Pass. As punishment for slapping a soldier reportedly suffering from PTSD, Patton was relieved and sent to England to deceive the Germans as to the where and how the Allies would invade France. Leading the Third U.S. Army, he executed a series of impressive armored drives, helping to relieve Bastogne and cross into Germany. Rapido River crossing- A World War II river crossing by the 36th Infantry Division and 19th Engineer Regiment of the U.S. Army north of Cassino, Italy in an attempt to break through the German Gustav Line. Lasting from 20-22 January 1944, from the start the operation went poorly. The Americans suffered severe casualties Inexperienced infantryman and ill-equipped engineers did not have enough, or the right kind of, boats to cross the deep and swift Rapido. Franklin D. Roosevelt- As U.S. president from 1933 to 1945, FDR capably balanced American neutrality and assistance to friendly European powers until the nation declared war against the Axis Powers following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Before Roosevelt could see through the end of the war and his ambitious post-war designs, he died on April 12, 1945 after suffering a substantial stroke. Erwin Rommel- A German general officer during World War II, best known for his highly mobile desert armor campaigns in North Africa leading the Afrika Korps, where he earned the moniker “Desert Fox” and won a tactical victory against the untested Americans at Kasserine Pass in February 1943. Rommel was later ordered to improve the French coastal defenses and led all German forces in France during Operation Overlord. On 14 October 1944 he committed suicide after being implicated in a plot to kill Adolf Hitler. SBD “Dauntless” dive bomber- As a dive bomber in World War Ii – the method of approaching a target from a high altitude, diving at a moderately steep angle to increase accuracy and decrease exposure – the U.S Navy launched the Dauntless primarily from the decks of aircraft carriers, and used the aircraft to great effect in the Pacific Theater, relying upon them as the primary dive bomber for most of the war against Japanese Navy ships. Walter C. Short- (1880-1949), U.S. Army lieutenant general, in charge of the defense of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii at the time of the Japanese attack on 7 December 1941. Like Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, Short was recalled to Washington D.C., relieved of command, and found guilty of dereliction of duty. TORCH, Operation- The American invasion of North Africa, 8-16 November 1942, the first major American military effort against German and Italian forces. The invasion itself was a diplomatic and practical consideration, as Joseph Stalin demanded his Allied open a second front to alleviate pressure on the Soviet Union in the East. Troina, Battle of- A battle during the Allied invasion of Sicily, or Operation Husky, during World War II. Three weeks after the Allies landed, German and Italian forces had formed a defensive line from the foot of Mount Etna to the town of Troina and across the Caronie Mountains. American units attacked Troina from 31 July to 6 August 1943. After suffering heavy losses, the Americans took the high ground and their accurate artillery fire forced the Axis units to withdraw. Tuskegee Airmen- Most famous of the 100,000 black Americans who served in combat units during World War II. Becoming the 332nd Fighter Group after flight training at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, elements deployed to North Africa and Sicily in 1942 and 1943. Moving to southern Italy in 1944 they compiled their most important figures while flying fighter protection for U.S. bombing raids: 400 enemy aircraft damaged or destroyed on 15,500 sorties during 311 missions. Two-Pronged Strategy (Pacific)- The Pacific Theater strategy of the United States during World War II. Army General Douglas MacArthur commanded the Southwest Pacific Theater, while Navy Admiral Chester Nimitz commanded the Central Pacific Theater. Type 92 “Long Lance” torpedo- Japanese torpedoes used during the attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on 7 December 1941. Specially designed with wooden fins that allowed them to run near the water’s surface rather than impact the harbor’s shallow bottom, along with armor-piercing bombs they proved to be devastating against the anchored American ships. Alexander A. Vandegrift- (1887-1973), 1st Marine Division commander during the World War II Guadalcanal Campaign 7 August 1942 to 9 February 1943. Wake Island- U.S. military base, attacked by the Japanese on December 7, 1941, the same day as Pearl Harbor. 2,000 miles west of Hawaii, the isolated U.S. Marines and civilian contractors who manned the island held out against repeated Japanese aerial and naval attacks, providing a much-needed morale boost for the country. The defenders held out until 23 December when they surrendered in the face of a more determined Japanese attack, spending the duration of the war as prisoners of war. WATCHTOWER, Operation- Codename for the World War II Guadalcanal Campaign, lasting from August 7, 1942 to February 9, 1943 it was the first real test of American land strength in Pacific. The Japanese construction of an airfield on Guadalcanal in the Solomons, they could interdict American supply routes to Australia or possibly target U.S. naval forces in the southwest Pacific. Watchtower not only looked to quell that threat, but also to isolate and capture Rabaul. Wolfpack- A German U-boat tactic used during World War II, notably during the Battle of the Atlantic. The method utilized as many as twenty U-boats (German submarines) forming a line that straddled expected Allied sea routes. Isoroku Yamamoto- (1884-1943), Japanese naval officer during World War II, the architect of the attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii and commander of Japanese naval forces in the war against the Americans. On 18 April 1943 while flying to the northern Solomons to inspect bases, American fighters intercepted and shot down his aircraft after encryption of Japanese messages revealed his itinerary. Yorktown, USS- A U.S. Navy aircraft carrier during World War II used by Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher as the flagship for Task Force 17. Taking part in the Battle of Coral Sea from 4-8 May 1942, the Yorktown suffered that would take an estimated three months to repair. She was rushed back after 2 days. While being towed back to Pearl Harbor for more repairs after sustaining extensive damage during the Battle of Midway, a Japanese submarine sunk the Yorktown on 7 June 1942. Chapter 11: Mobilizing for the Second World War, 1941-1943Chapter 12: Winning the Second World War, 1943-1945Adams, Michael C. C. The Best War Ever: America and World War II. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. Atkinson, Rick. The Liberation Trilogy. 3 vols.New York: Holt, 2002-2013 Bailey, Beth, and David Farber. The First Strange Place: Race and Sex in World War II Hawaii. New York: The Free Press, 1992. Cameron, Craig M. Myth, Imagination, and the Conduct of Battle in the First Marine Division, 1941-1951. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Crane, Conrad C. American Airpower Strategy in World War II: Bombs, Cities, Civilians, and Oil. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2016. D’este, Carlos. Patton: A Genius for War. New York: HarperCollins, 1995. Dimbleby, Jonathan. The Battle of the Atlantic: How the Allies
Won the War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016. Dolski, Michael. D-Day Remembered: The Normandy Landings in
American Collective Memory. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2016. Dower, John W. War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon, 1986. Ehlers, Robert S., Jr. The Mediterranean Air War: Airpower and Allied Victory. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2015. Frank, Richard B. Guadalcanal: The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle. New York: Random House, 1990. James, D. Clayton. The Years of MacArthur, 1941-1945. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975. Kennedy, David M. Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Kershaw, Alex. The Liberator: One World War II Soldier’s 500-Day Odyssey from the Beaches of Sicily to the Gates of Dachau. New York: Crown,
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Multicultural History of America in World War II. New York: Back Bay Books, 2001. Ulbrich, David J. Preparing for Victory: Thomas Holcomb and the Making of the Modern Marine Corps, 1936–1943. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2011. Urwin, Gregory J. W. Facing Fearful Odds: The Siege of Wake Island. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997. U.S. Army Center of Military History. The U.S. Army in World War II. 78 vols. Washington: Office of the Chief of Military History, U.S. Army, 1947-92. U.S. Marine Corps. History of the U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. 5 vols. Washington: Historical Branch, G-3 Division, Headquarters Marine Corps, 1958-68. Walker, J. Samuel. Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of the Atomic Bombs against Japan, rev. ed.
Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004. Weigley, Russell F. Eisenhower’s Lieutenants: The Campaign of France and Germany, 1944-1945. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981. Weinberg, Gerhard L. A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Werrell, Kenneth P. Blankets of Fire: U.S. Bombers over Japan during World War II. Washington: Smithsonian, 1996. Chapter 11: Mobilizing for the Second World War, 1941–1943 and Chapter 12: Winning the Second World War, 1943–1945Alexander, Joseph A Utmost Savagery: The Three Days of Tarawa. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1995. Bérubé, Allan Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two. New York: Penguin, 1990. Blumenson, Martin Bloody River: The Real Tragedy of the Rapido. Reprint. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1998. Callahan, Raymond Burma, 1941–1945. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1979. Campbell, D’Ann Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986. D’Este, Carlo Patton: A Genius for War. Reprint. Harper Perennial, 1996. Fatal Decision: Anzio and the Battle for Rome. New York: Harper Perennial, 2008. Doubler, Michael Closing with the Enemy: How GIs Fought the War in Europe, 1944–1945 Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995. Dower, John War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War New York: Pantheon, 1997. Gantter, Raymond Roll Me Over: An Infantryman’s World War II. New York: Ballantine Books, 2007. Gray, J. Glenn The Warriors: Reflections of Men in Battle Reprint. Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 1998. Hamner, Christopher Enduring Battle: American Soldiers in Three Wars, 1776–1945. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2011. Jarvis, Christina S The Male Body at War: American Masculinity during World War II DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2010. Kindsvatter, Peter American Soldiers: Ground Combat in the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam Lawrence: University Press of Kansas Press, 2003. Larrabee, Eric Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War. New York: Harper and Row, 1987. Lewis, Adrian R Omaha Beach: A Flawed Victory. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. Linderman, Gerald The World within War: America’s Combat Experience in World War II. New York: Free Press, 1997. MacDonald, Charles B Company Commander. New York: Ballantine Books, 1966. Mansoor, Peter The G.I. Offensive in Europe: The Triumph of American Infantry Divisions, 1941–1945. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2002. MacGregor, Morris J Integration of the Army Forces, 1940–1965. Washington: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1981. Marshall, S L A Men Against Fire: The Problem of Command. Reprint. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000. McManus, John F Grunts: Inside the American Infantry Combat Experience, World War II through Iraq New York: NAL, 2011. September Hope: The American Side of a Bridge Too Far. New York: Penguin, 2012. Murray, Williamson, and Allan R. Millett A War To Be Won: Fighting the Second World War Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard, 2001. Ohl, James Kennedy Supplying the Troops: Brehon Somervell and American Logistics in World War II. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1994. Polenberg, Richard War and Society: The United States, 1941–1945 Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1972. Porch, Douglas The Path to Victory: The Mediterranean Theater in World War II. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2004. Prange, Gordon W., with Daniel M. Goldstein and Katherine V. Dillon At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor. New York: Penguin, 1981. Roeder, George, Jr The Censored War: American Visual Experience during World War Two New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995. Rush, Robert Sterling Hell in Hürtgen Forest: The Ordeal and Triumph of an American Infantry Regiment. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004. Sandler, Stanley Segregated Skies: All-Black Combat Squadrons of WW II Washington: Smithsonian, 1998. Schaffer, Ronald Wings of Judgment: American Bombing in World War II. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. Schrijvers, Peter Bloody Pacific: American Soldiers at War with Japan. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. Showalter, Dennis Patton and Rommel: Men of War in the Twentieth Century New York: Berkley, 2006. Sledge, E B With the Old Breed at Peleliu and Okinawa. Reprint. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. Smith, Kevin Conflict over Convoys: Anglo-American Logistics Diplomacy in the Second World War. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Symonds, Craig The Battle of Midway. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. Syrett, David Defeat of the German U-Boats: The Battle of the Atlantic. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994. Terkel, Studs The Good War: An Oral History of World War II Reprint. New York: New Press, 1997. Treadwell, Mattie E The Women’s Army Corps Washington: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1954. Ulbrich, David J Preparing for Victory: Thomas Holcomb and the Making of the Modern Marine Corps 1936–1943 Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2011. Urwin, Gregory J W Facing Fearful Odds: The Siege of Wake Island. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997. Victory in Defeat: The Wake Island Defenders in Captivity, 1941–1945.Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2010. Wilt, Alan F The French Riviera Campaign of August 1944 Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1981. Chapter 11: 1941-1943Site: NavSource Naval History Site: Library of Congress, After the Day of Infamy Project Site: Hyperwar, The Tide Turns: Doolittle Raid, Coral Sea, Midway, Aleutians Site: Naval Historical and Heritage Command, “Battle of Midway” Site: Rutgers Oral History Archives Site: University of Tennessee, Knoxville Center for the Study of War & Society Oral History Project Site: National Archives, Pictures of World War II Site: National Archives,
Pictures of African Americans during World War II Site: University of Texas Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection Site: U.S. Army Center of Military History U.S. Army in World War
II Series “Green Books” Site: Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, Black Wings: African American Pioneer Aviators Site: The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, The Betty H. Carter Women Veterans Historical Project Site: Texas Woman’s University, Women Airforce Service Pilots Official Archive Site: American-Divisions, “Report of the Commander-in-Chief Allied Forces to the Combined
Chiefs of Staff on Operations in Northwest Africa” Site: American-Divisions, “PLAN ‘HUSKY’” Chapter 12Chapter 12: Winning the Second World War, 1943-1945Chapter 12 focuses on the last years of the Second World War, 1943 to 1945. In Europe, the Allied landings on North Africa, Sicily, and Italy in 1942 and 1943 served as preludes to D-Day on June 6, 1944. This invasion of Normandy was the largest amphibious assault in history as well as one of the greatest gambles. Subsequent operations to defeat German ground forces took another eleven months, including the massive Battle of the Bulge in December 1944. On the other side of world, two irresistible offensive campaigns continued in the Central Pacific under Admiral Chester W. Nimitz and in the Southwest Pacific under General Douglas MacArthur. These would eventually bring American forces to the shores of the Japanese home islands by the summer of 1945. Combined arms operations using air, ground, or naval assets characterized American fighting in the Pacific and Europe. Throughout the Second World War, the new doctrines and technologies so hotly debated in the 1920s and 1930s were validated or altered to help achieve victory. Armor tactics, amphibious operations, and strategic bombing stand as representative case studies. The last of these included the most striking application of air power doctrine – the atomic bomb. In this chapter, students will learn about how the United States put interwar doctrines and weapons systems to the test in wartime operations. It will trace the two-pronged American strategy in the Pacific during 1943-1944. The importance of how the United States won the logistics war against the Axis Powers is discussed. In European Theater discussions, the planning and execution of Operation OVERLORD is highlighted, while the bloody battles on Iwo Jim and Okinawa will be discussed for the Pacific Theater. Last, this chapter will examine the practical, strategic, and ethical factors in using the Atomic Bombs. Chapter 12 (1943-1945) GlossaryArnold, Henry H. “Hap”- (1886-1950), U.S. Army general, commander of the Army Air Force during World War II, and a man possessed of considerable affability, hence his nickname “Hap,” which was short for “happy.” He is considered the father of the modern Army Air Force, since under him the air arm grew from 150,000 in 1941 with antiquated aircraft, to nearly 2.4 million men in 1944 with modern equipment. “Atlantic Wall”- Nazi Germany’s line of coastal defenses during World War II that stretched from the Netherlands south to Spain. A formidable obstacle, by mid-1944 the Germany Army in northwestern France totaled 50 divisions of more than 600,000 men. B-17 “Flying Fortress”- American heavy bomber developed by Boeing and used during World War II. Most predominately used in the European theater, it was the backbone of the U.S. Army Air Force’s effort to target Nazi Germany’s war-making capabilities and infrastructure. An impressively rugged aircraft, it was known for bringing its eleven-man crew back from missions after suffering impossibly heavy damage. B-24 “Liberator”- American heavy bomber designed by Consolidated Aircraft, flown extensively throughout the world in multiple theaters by American armed forces as well as Allied militaries. Although better in many categories compared to the Flying Fortress, the B-17’s ruggedness still places the B-24 in the shadows of popular memory. A decorated and impressive service record for the B-24 during WWII is topped by the 12 June 1943 raid on the German oil refineries at Ploesti, Romania. B-29 “Superfortress”- High-flying American heavy bomber designed by Boeing and used during World War II and the Korean War. Used mostly in the Pacific Theater where its ample range was needed most, the Superfortress boasted a pressurized fuselage, allowing it to fly at higher altitudes, avoiding anti-aircraft and enemy aircraft. Superfortresses delivered the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. “Big Week”- An Allied air offensive during World War II, codenamed Operation ARGUMENT, where some 3,000 bombers of the U.S. 8th Air Force and 500 from the 15th Air Force hit German aircraft factories and other strategic targets. From 20-25 February 1944 the Americans lost 250 bombers shot down or disabled, but the enemy more acutely felt the loss of at least 100 experienced fighter pilots and 350 German fighters downed. “Black Thursday”- The 14 October 1943 U.S. Army Air Force bombing raid on ball bearing factories in Schweinfurt, Germany. On a single day the USAAF experienced their highest loss rate of any single mission with 60 B-17s shot down out of the 251 aircraft that participated. With each B-17 carrying a crew of ten, 650 men were killed, wounded, or captured. Bradley, Omar N.- (1893-1981), U.S. Army general officer during World War II in North Africa and Europe, known for his unpretentious bearing and highly popular status among soldiers. The last Army officer to hold the rank of five star general. Broad front strategy- General Dwight Eisenhower’s, Supreme Allied Commander during World War II, decision after the success of Operation OVERLORD to advance into Germany on a broad front instead of what he perceived as a risky singular thrust. A controversial decision, critics such as Bernard Montgomery favored a quick drive into Germany all the way to Berlin, ending the war as soon as possible. Bulge, Battle of the- The German offensive Operation Wacht am Rhein (Watch on the Rhine) from 16 December 1944 to 15 January 1945. The battle was the German’s last desperate attempt to halt the Allied advances. German forces opened a seventy-mile bulge in the U.S. lines while American units made a stand in the town of Bastogne. By the New Year U.S. forces recovered from the initial blow and steadily drove the enemy back. Casablanca Conference- January 1943 meeting between U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in Morocco. During the conference they authorized the feasibility study for an amphibious operation across the English Channel. Additionally, the two leaders agreed on the Allied policy of “unconditional surrender” as their grand strategic objective for the war, requiring the Allies to militarily defeat Germany and Japan to establish a post-war settlement. Close air support- Distinct from strategic bombing, close air support is the use of aircraft in a coordinated way with the ground forces, providing suppressive fire or destroying specific targets. DOWNFALL, Operation- The planned American invasion of the Japanese home islands during World War II. Using the casualty rates on Okinawa and Iwo Jima as predictors of what to expect on the home islands. The Americans decided to cancel the operation, fearing 130,000 casualties in the initial invasion itself. Instead, President Harry Truman ordered the use of the atomic bombs to end the war. Eisenhower, Dwight D.- (1890-1969), U.S. Army general officer during World War II and acting supreme commander of Allied forces. Elected president in 1953, Eisenhower served two terms, ending in 1961, warning in his farewell address about the perils of the military-industrial complex. Enola Gay- The B-29 Superfortress that dropped the atomic bomb “Little Boy” on Hiroshima, Japan on 6 August 1945 during World War II. Piloted by Colonel Paul Tibbets, he named the aircraft after his mother. Although the atomic bomb did not end the war immediately, the additional dropping of another bomb three days later convinced the Japanese to surrender. Falaise Pocket, Battle of- (August 12-21, 1944), World War II battle between Allied forces and German troops near the French city of Falaise. While Canadians attacked south from near Caen, the Americans drove north, tightening the noose on two German Panzer armies. Even though 100,000 of the enemy escaped the trap, the Allies inflicted 10,000 killed in action and captured 40,000 more. As a result, the Allies threw back Germans east of the Seine River and liberated Paris from enemy occupation. Halsey, William- (1882-1959), U.S. navy admiral, tellingly nicknamed “Bull,” his aggressiveness was a hallmark of his command during World War II. He was made commander of South Pacific Forces in October 1942 during the crucial Guadalcanal Campaign when his leadership was instrumental in American victory. In September 1944 Halsey became the head of Third Fleet, the force he led away from the landing at Leyte when he fell victim to a Japanese ploy to lure him out to sea. Hedgerows- Earthen embankments in the Normandy, France region, several feet tall and several feet wide at their base that divide fields and line roadways and are covered with nearly impenetrable tangled vegetation. During Operation OVERLORD, the Allied invasion of France in June 1944, hedgerows provided excellent opportunities for enemy direct and indirect artillery and machine gun fire, while also concealing enemy positions from the air and limiting the Allied soldiers’ ability to maneuver. Hollandia- The largest and most critical Japanese bases on New Guinea during World War II. It fell quickly to the American amphibious assault forces with minimal losses on 22 April 1944. Hirohito, Emperor- (1901-1989), Japanese emperor during World War II. After the Americans dropped two atomic bombs – 6 August 1945 on Hiroshima and 9 August on Nagasaki – Hirohito understood Japan’s continued war effort to be certainly futile. On 15 August 1945, despite pressure from inside the army to keep fighting, he announced his decision to surrender to the Allies in the best interest of preserving the Japanese nation and culture. Hitler, Adolf- (1889-1945), The leader of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. After taking power as chancellor he became dictator with the start of Nazi Germany one year later, a regime that espoused a fascist political philosophy, embracing anti-Semitism, anti-communism, and racial hatred. After realizing his defeat was certain, he took his own life on 30 April 1945 in his Berlin underground bunker. Island-hopping strategy- A U.S. Navy technique during World War II. A multi-phase strategy, it can best be described using three generic Japanese bases: Island A, Island B, and Island C. American aircraft would destroy enemy naval and aviation assets near Island A, allowing Marines to conduct amphibious assault operations against the island, securing it from the Japanese. Then, Island A became a jumping-off point for attacks on Island B, which would then support operations against Island C. Kurita, Takeo- (1889-1977) World War II Imperial Japanese Navy vice admiral, commander of the center force of the Japanese fleet at the Battle of Leyte Gulf (October 23-26, 1944), including the superbattleships Yamato and Musashi. Due to audacious American attacks against his center force, Kurita withdrew his ships. Otherwise Kurita could have affected the American’s strategic effort by destroying General Douglas MacArthur’s supply ships and then bombarded the U.S. troops on Leyte. Leapfrogging strategy- American strategy during World War II in the Pacific Theater whereby U.S. forces skipped over certain islands. While the first phase resembled the island-hopping strategy of assaulting and taking an island as a staging point for future operations, the second phase involved American aircraft destroying all enemy air and naval assets near the next island but not using ground forces against it. Without aerial or naval capabilities the enemy there posed no threat to American forces. Leyte Gulf, Battle of- A World War II naval battle, the largest in the world’s history, between the United States and the Japanese Navy from October 24-24, 1944. The Japanese assembled the remnants of their surface fleet in an attempt to destroy the American landing at the Filipino island of Leyte including their twin super-battleships Yamato and Musashi. However, due to Japanese cautiousness, along with a spirited defense from the outnumbered and outgunned Americans, the Japanese withdrew away from the battle area. Logistics- A military’s administration, procurement, maintenance, transportation, and storage of supplies and equipment, as well as the housing and transportation of personnel and the evacuation and hospitalization of casualties MacArthur, Douglas- One of the most controversial U.S. Army officers of the twentieth-century. Known for his superlative egotism, MacArthur’s prestige, ability to appropriate credit where it was due others, and later wartime exploits contributed to his avoiding Congressional investigations like those after Pearl Harbor. MacArthur commanded the Southwest Pacific Theater during World War II that stretched from New Guinea to the Philippines. Manhattan Project- The codename for the secret development of the atomic bombs that the United States dropped on Japan in August 1945. Run by the United States, along with assistance from Great Britain, it began in 1942 with multiple locations across North America participating. President Harry S. Truman was not even informed of it in his role as vice president until the death of Franklin Roosevelt moved him into the presidency. MARKET GARDEN, Operation- A World War II Allied operation designed by British Field Marshal Montgomery from September 17-25, 1944. Montgomery planned a singular thrust that would open a bridgehead across the Rhine River. Boasting the largest airborne operation in history, 30,000 paratroopers would hold three bridges, while British units fought to relieve them and move to the next bridge. But, these British units failed to reach the third bridge. Nagasaki- The target of the second atomic bomb dropped, nicknamed “Fat Man,” by the United States on August 9, 1945. Of the 270,000 Japanese civilians who lived in the city at the time of the explosion, the blast killed 35,000 and injured 50,000. Over the coming decades several hundred thousand more succumbed to complications caused by radiation from the bomb. Emperor Hirohito announced Japan’s surrender six days later on 15 August. New Guinea, Campaign for- One of the fiercest and most enduring campaigns of World War II, fought by Australian and American forces in the Southwest Pacific Theater, along with the help of indigenous Papuans and New Guineans. The Australian colony of Papua and the mandated territory of New Guinea were important strategic points during the war, and when Japanese troops landed on 8 March 1942, they threatened Australia and important shipping lanes. Nimitz, Chester W.- (1885-1966), U.S. Navy admiral during World War II, commander-in-chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, 7 December 1941. He controlled not just all naval assets, but all Allied air and land forces in the theater. Nimitz was responsible for planning and point Battle of Midway in 1942, along with the offensive against Guadalcanal in 1942. In 1944 Nimitz’s forces assisted General Douglas MacArthur in the Southwest Pacific Theater with the Philippines Campaigns. OVERLORD, Operation- The code name for the Allied invasion of France during World War II, beginning on “D-Day,” 6 June 1944, and lasting until 25 August. An unwieldy German command structure, convincing deception efforts, Hitler’s sleeping habits, and the Führer’s intransigence regarding committing armored reserves allowed the Allies to gain a foothold and push inland. Okinawa, Battle of- A World War II battle that ended in an American victory. Only 400 miles southwest of the home islands, Okinawa was part of Japan – an attack on that island constituted an attack on the nation itself. The Japanese fought tenaciously from 1 April to 22 June 1945. Along with the 100,000 Japanese combatants who died, some 82 days of combat operations saw 183,000 Americans on Okinawa with more than 12,500 died and 40,000 were wounded. P-51 “Mustang”- World War II American fighter designed by North American Aviation. As an escort for bombers, the long range of the P-51 and inclusion of extra fuel held in drop-tanks made it ideal. As a result the P-51 allowed the Army Air Force to provide escorts for the duration of a mission, something that had been made more difficult as bombing targets deep inside Germany taxed the range of most fighters. Patton, George S.- A U.S. Army general officer, well known for his brash demeanor and flamboyant nature, but also for inspiring his soldiers through discipline, esprit de corps, and leading from the front. Leading the Third U.S. Army, he was able to execute a series of impressive armored drives, helping to relieve Bastogne and in March 1945 crossing the Rhine River, entering Germany. Tragically, in December 1945, months after WWII ended, he died of injuries sustained in a car accident. Peiper, Joachim – (1915-1976) A German Waffen SS officer during World War II. He commanded Kampfgruppe Peiper, which was the tip the German surprise attack against American lines during the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944. Peiper’s unit was repeatedly delayed and essentially halted by American combat engineers along the Elsenborn Ridge which ran along the northern edge of the bulge. Peleliu, Battle of- World War II battle in the Pacific Theater from 15 September to 27 November 1944. The Japanese-held island and its airfield threatened U.S. shipping routes to the Philippines, convincing American planners that Peleliu needed to be taken. Japanese defenses were denser than initially believed, and what was supposed to take less than four days of combat dragged on for over two months. Fighting claimed 1,800 U.S. deaths and 8,000 wounded out of 28,500 who went ashore. Philippine Sea, Battle of the- A World War II naval battle from 19-20 June 1944. The war’s biggest carrier battle, the Japanese attempted to destroy the U.S. Navy during the invasion of Saipan. Admiral Spruance’s Fifth Fleet refused to fall for a designed trap, allowing instead for the enemy to sail his remaining five heavy aircraft carriers to the American position where seven U.S. carriers waited. Japanese losses numbered more than 30 planes without a single sunk American vessel to show for their efforts. Potsdam Conference- Codenamed “TERMINAL,” it was an Allied conference from 17 July to 2 August 1945 held outside of Berlin in Potsdam, Germany. The third, longest, and final conference in which all three leaders of the Grand Alliance discussed the surrender of Japan, peace terms in Europe, and a newly re-established Poland. While at the conference Truman learned of the successful test of an atomic bomb in New Mexico. Saipan, Battle of- A World War II Pacific Theater battle for the twelve mile by four mile island of Saipan. Lasting from 15 June to 9 July 1944, Japanese resistance was typically fierce, and American soldiers and Marines used artillery, demolitions, and flamethrowers to clear the cave networks of enemy. With the island’s capture the Americans were able to fly from Saipan with B-29s and hit targets on Japan’s home islands. Sherman Tank- The main American medium tank during World War II. The M4 first saw action in North Africa in late 1942 with the British. It saw extensive use throughout the war in American hands and was generally considered reliable and highly mobile by its crews, qualities essential to the fast pace of some operations. Throughout World War II the United States produced nearly 50,000 Shermans in different configurations. Strategic bombardment- Dating back to the 1920s and 1930s as a debated concept, strategic bombardment is the use of aircraft to bomb targets important to an enemy’s prosecution of war. During World War II the United States used their long- and medium-range bombers (B-25, B-26, B-17s, B-24s, B-29s) to destroy enemy railroads, bridges, factories, and oil refineries, as well as bombing urban areas in the hopes of crushing the population’s will to fight. Tactical airpower- The use of aircraft to establish and maintain control of the airspace over a finite area above a battlefield, city, region, or area of water. Command of the skies allows freedom of ground maneuver, and disruption of enemy movement and supply – a reality enjoyed by American forces during the majority of their conflicts where aircraft played a role. Terror bombing- The targeting of civilian populations in total war by aerial bombardment in an attempt to break the nation’s will to fight. World War II’s most illustrative examples include the Allied bombing of Dresden, Germany on 13 February 1945 when 1,300 bombers dropped 4,000 tons of incendiary bombs causing at least 25,000 civilian deaths. Tarawa, Battle of- A World War II Pacific Theater battle on the Tarawa atoll situated in the Gilberts island chain. On 20 November, more than 1,500 Marines became casualties on the first day of the 5,000 who made the assault. On the second and third day Marine reinforcements cut Betio into two parts and eventually overwhelmed the Japanese during bitter fighting. Overall American losses counted 1,000 killed and 2,250 wounded. Japanese casualties totaled 4,800 dead of the original 5,000. Total War- The complete mobilization of a nation’s resources and population in wartime.. The most complete definition of total war is arguably not seen until World War II when aerial bombardment of the opposition’s industrial capacity and civilian population’s will to fight was targeted, when the lines between combatant and non-combatant became blurred. Tokyo- Japan’s capital city. During World War II it was the target of U.S. Army Air Forces Lt. Col. Jimmy Doolittle’s raid in 1942 with B-25 Mitchells, constituting a symbolic victory more than a strategic one for the Americans. Tokyo was also the sight of the most destructive terror bombing in the Pacific Theater when on 10 March 1945 some 330 U.S. Superfortresses dropped 3,000 tons of incendiaries killing an estimated 100,000. Truman, Harry- (1884-1972), the thirty-third U.S. president from 1945 to 1952. As vice-president to Franklin D. Roosevelt, Truman was sworn in to the presidency after FDR’s death on 12 April 1945. Truman assumed the leadership of the country at a truly momentous time, when the war in Europe was coming to an end and fighting in the Pacific continued to rage. While at the Potsdam Conference in July 1945 he learned of the first successful test of the bomb and ultimately decided to use the weapon against Japan. “Unconditional surrender”- Allied war aims during World War II to seek the complete victory and the total surrender of the Axis powers. It was mostly understood to mean Germany and Japan. As a policy, it looked to avoid the perceived mistakes of World War I when peace came with conditions, which was seen to have allowed Germany to perpetrate World War II. The Allies first articulated the desire for unconditional surrender at the Casablanca Conference in January 1943. V-E Day- Victory in Europe day, on 8 May 1945 when the Allies accepted the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany, which effectively ended fighting in the European Theater during World War II. V-J Day- Victory over Japan day, 15 August 1945 (14 August in the U.S. because of the time difference), when Japan surrendered, marking the cessation of hostilities in the Pacific Theater of World War II. U.S. Army Air Forces- The aviation arm for the United States during World War II. Formerly called the U.S. Army Air Corps, in 1941 it was designated the Army Air Forces until the National Security Act of 1947 solidified it as the autonomous U.S. Air Force, separate from Army control. Throughout World War II it undertook both strategic and tactical operations, and was responsible for the punishing daytime bombing raids across Europe against Nazi Germany, as well as bombing missions in the Pacific. U.S. Army Service Forces- The main organization during World War II responsible for handling the U.S. Army’s logistics. Commanded by Lieutenant General Brehon Somervell, his 2 million soldiers, including most of the African Americans and women in uniform, performed tasks ranging from record keeping and inventory management to truck driving and combat loading of landing craft. Somervell also coordinated not only the flow of supplies with the Navy and the American merchant marine. Yamato and Musashi- Twin Japanese superbattleships that sailed during World War II. Their armaments and armor made them the largest, most heavily armed and armored battleships ever put to sea. U.S. Navy carrier aviation forces sunk Musashi 24 October 1944 during the Battle of Leyte Gulf and the Yamato 7 April 1945 off of Okinawa during the American invasion of the island. Yalta Conference- Codenamed ARGONAUT, a World War II meeting in the Crimea between Allied powers represented by Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin from 4 to 11 February 1945.Among the topics discussed were the Allied strategy in the final phase of the war and how their respective forces would liaise with each other in newly occupied territories. Without Churchill’s knowledge, Stalin and Roosevelt agreed to the Soviet acquisition of territory in East Asia in return for the USSR entering the war against Japan. Chapter 11: Mobilizing for the Second World War, 1941-1943Chapter 12: Winning the Second World War, 1943-1945Adams, Michael C. C. 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Blumenson, Martin Bloody River: The Real Tragedy of the Rapido. Reprint. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1998. Callahan, Raymond Burma, 1941–1945. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1979. Campbell, D’Ann Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986. D’Este, Carlo Patton: A Genius for War. Reprint. Harper Perennial, 1996. Fatal Decision: Anzio and the Battle for Rome. New York: Harper Perennial, 2008. Doubler, Michael Closing with the Enemy: How GIs Fought the War in Europe, 1944–1945 Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995. Dower, John War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War New York: Pantheon, 1997. Gantter, Raymond Roll Me Over: An Infantryman’s World War II. New York: Ballantine Books, 2007. Gray, J. Glenn The Warriors: Reflections of Men in Battle Reprint. Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 1998. Hamner, Christopher Enduring Battle: American Soldiers in Three Wars, 1776–1945. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2011. Jarvis, Christina S The Male Body at War: American Masculinity during World War II DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2010. Kindsvatter, Peter American Soldiers: Ground Combat in the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam Lawrence: University Press of Kansas Press, 2003. Larrabee, Eric Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War. New York: Harper and Row, 1987. Lewis, Adrian R Omaha Beach: A Flawed Victory. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. Linderman, Gerald The World within War: America’s Combat Experience in World War II. New York: Free Press, 1997. MacDonald, Charles B Company Commander. New York: Ballantine Books, 1966. Mansoor, Peter The G.I. Offensive in Europe: The Triumph of American Infantry Divisions, 1941–1945. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2002. MacGregor, Morris J Integration of the Army Forces, 1940–1965. Washington: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1981. Marshall, S L A Men Against Fire: The Problem of Command. Reprint. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000. McManus, John F Grunts: Inside the American Infantry Combat Experience, World War II through Iraq New York: NAL, 2011. September Hope: The American Side of a Bridge Too Far. New York: Penguin, 2012. Murray, Williamson, and Allan R. Millett A War To Be Won: Fighting the Second World War Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard, 2001. Ohl, James Kennedy Supplying the Troops: Brehon Somervell and American Logistics in World War II. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1994. Polenberg, Richard War and Society: The United States, 1941–1945 Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1972. Porch, Douglas The Path to Victory: The Mediterranean Theater in World War II. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2004. Prange, Gordon W., with Daniel M. Goldstein and Katherine V. Dillon At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor. New York: Penguin, 1981. 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New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. Syrett, David Defeat of the German U-Boats: The Battle of the Atlantic. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994. Terkel, Studs The Good War: An Oral History of World War II Reprint. New York: New Press, 1997. Treadwell, Mattie E The Women’s Army Corps Washington: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1954. Ulbrich, David J Preparing for Victory: Thomas Holcomb and the Making of the Modern Marine Corps 1936–1943 Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2011. Urwin, Gregory J W Facing Fearful Odds: The Siege of Wake Island. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997. Victory in Defeat: The Wake Island Defenders in Captivity, 1941–1945.Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2010. Wilt, Alan F The French Riviera Campaign of August 1944 Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1981. Chapter 12: 1943-1945Site: Naval History, Battle of the Atlantic – Its Development:
Part 2 of 2, 1943-1945 Site: Northwestern University, Digital Library, World War II Posters Site: Hyperwar, U.S. Navy in World War II Site: Pacific War Animated Site: American-Divisions, Operation OVERLORD Order Site:
American D-Day Site: Life Magazine, Before and After D-Day: Life in England and
France, 1944 Site: Ball State University, 376th Heavy Bombardment Group Oral Histories Site: Ball State University, Cantigny First Division Oral Histories Site: Ball State University/WIPB-TV, Echoes of War: Stories from the Big Red One Site: Ohio University, Cornelius Ryan of World War II Papers Site: Library of Congress, World War II Military Situation Maps Site: American Aircraft of World War II Site: ArmyAirForces.com of World War II Site: National World War II Museum Site: Harry S. Truman Presidential Library, The Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb Site: National Archives, Featured Documents: Japan Surrenders Chapter 13Chapter 13: American National Security in the Early Cold War, 1945-60Chapter 13 explains the origins of the Cold War and the development of American strategy in the postwar world. Following the end of the conflict in 1945, the world looked to the future with hope for lasting peace. Only the United States and the Soviet Union rose from rubble of history’s more destructive conflict with preponderances of military and economic power. The common objective of defeating the Axis powers had sustained the Grand Alliance of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom throughout the war. However, with the old European power structure now swept from the continent, the Americans and Soviets eyed each other warily. A brief and tenuous honeymoon followed until 1947 when efforts to transcend differences, fears, and objectives between Washington and Moscow failed. Then the world plunged into the “Cold War.” This confrontation pitted the democratic, capitalist United States against the totalitarian, communist Soviet Union, but it did not degenerate into a direct shooting war between the nations. Unlike the American experience after the First World War, the United States would not return to isolationism after the defeat of the Axis Powers. Instead, Americans attempted to restrain the spread of communism in the war-torn world and stop the extension of the Soviet Union influence. A single thread of containment can be seen weaving its way through this chapter: Presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower tried to contain Soviet and Communist expansion, but they did so in different ways. In this chapter students will learn about the origins of the Cold War and the establishment of President Harry S. Truman’s strategy of symmetric containment. From there, there will be a discussion or how the U.S. military reorganized its missions, structures, and social relations. Emphasis will be placed on the Korean War as the first major proxy conflict between the superpowers. Finally, this chapter will discuss Eisenhower’s “New Look” strategy and the evolution of asymmetric containment. Chapter 13 (1945-1960) GlossaryEdward M. Almond- (1892-1979), Major general in the U.S. Army, he was made Chief of Staff for the Far East Command in February 1949. A well-known adulator of the vainglorious Douglas MacArthur, neither Almond nor MacArthur as UN commander understood the full extent of North Korea’s initial invasion of South Korea in June 1950. In September Almond became commander of X Corps, cobbled together from disparate units, to undertake the Inchon landings. He also retained his role as chief of staff of the Far East Command. asymmetric containment- A conceptual framework historian John Lewis Gaddis created to define varying examples of containment strategies the United States practiced during the Cold War. The idea is represented in Gaddis’s 1982 work, Strategies of Containment. Asymmetrical containment referred to the United States confronting the Soviet Union in a calculated way – choosing the time, place, and means by which the confrontation would occur – but doing so in a manner that did not directly respond to Moscow’s initial move. B-52 “Stratofortress”- Boeing-produced jet-powered heavy bomber, designed to hit targets in Europe and Asia during the Cold War, and introduced to the U.S. Air Force in 1955. As a strategic bomber the B-52 is capable of carrying conventional bomb loads – as it has done in its combat history from Vietnam to Iraq and Afghanistan – as well as nuclear weapons and missiles. Berlin Airlift- Lasting from June 1948 until May 1949. The airlift was the American and British effort to supply blockaded West Berlin civilians with crucial supplies, from food to coal. The Allied Powers’ decision after World War II to divide Germany into zones of occupation had also extended to the division of Berlin itself, in the heart of Soviet-controlled East Germany. Fidel Castro- (1926-), Leader of a Cuban revolution in 1958 and then the subsequent regime, solidifying his singular control through brutal means. After taking power Castro nationalized many industries owned by foreign investors, including American. President Dwight Eisenhower interpreted Castro’s actions and philosophies as communist, and in a bid to contain communist expansion only 90 miles from America’s shores he ordered the CIA to attempt an overthrow. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)- An intelligence-gathering and covert operations organization in the United States government, established in the National Security Act of 1947. Initially formed in an attempt to collect and centralize Cold War intelligence, it quickly began clandestine operations, including supporting assassinations or coup d’état attempts against foreign governments perceived to be a threat to American security around the globe. Chipyong-ni, Battle of- Korean War battle in 1951 between 4,500 American and French troops defending the town of Chipyon-ni, east of Seoul, and 25,000 Chinese attackers. Lasting from 13-15 February, timely aerial supply provided the Americans with food and ammunition while close air support took a heavy toll on the enemy. A decisive victory, it broke the Chinese momentum in the war, allowing U.S. and U.N. forces to launch additional counter-offensives to push thee enemy back to the 38th Parallel. Chongchon Valley, Battle of- (25 November—2 December 1950), Korean War battle that resulted from General Douglas MacArthur’s offensive to push the Communist Chinese to the Yalu River in a bid to end the war before Christmas. Heavy casualties resulted in the U.S. 2nd Infantry Division becoming combat ineffective while the rest of the Eight Army that had survived the initial onslaught escaped to Pyongyang. Chosin, Battle of – (27 November – 11 December 1950), Some 70,000 Communist Chinese suddenly surrounded 30,000 U.S. and U.N. troops in northeastern Korea. Caught in a valley with escape blocked by the enemy, two Marine regiments broke through enemy lines to enter the reservoir and link up with friendly forces at Hagaru-ri. Utilizing combined arms, Smith’s forces broke through Chinese blocking forces, enduring an 80-mile trek to the American-held port city of Hangnum where they were evacuated. “Cold War”- The prolonged confrontation between two superpowers: the United States representing the “west” and its capitalist ideology, and the Soviet Union symbolizing the “east” and communism. It is referred to as a “cold” war because tensions never became “hot” by erupting into a shooting war between the two powers. Rather, open confrontations remained between proxies or used ideas. Covert Operations- Top secret missions that sometimes violate democratic sensibilities, if not Constitutional laws. Covert operations by the Central Intelligence Agency during the Cold War took place ostensibly in the interest of containing perceived communist threats, sometimes to the extent of intervening in foreign elections, state-sponsored assassination, or organizing coup d’état attempts against foreign governments (such as in Iran and Guatemala in 1953 and 1954, respectively). Executive Order 9981- (26 July 1948), Angered by post-war racial harassment and violence direct in the military against African Americans and other minorities in uniform, President Harry S. Truman issued Executive Order 9981. Without the adequate votes in Congress to support similar legislation, the president turned to the executive order, carrying with it the full force of law within the executive branch. It demanded equality in the armed forces and an end to discrimination based on matters of race, religion, and national origin. Deterrence- Threatening violence in response to one’s action in the hopes of discouraging provocation in the first place. In the Cold War, beginning with President Harry Truman and continuing with succeeding presidents, the United States used deterrence as a means to contain Soviet expansion. Strategic deterrence came in the form of nuclear weapons, either delivered by aircraft or ballistic missiles. Dwight D. Eisenhower- (1890-1969), U.S. Army general officer during World War II and acting supreme commander of Allied forces. Elected president in 1953, Eisenhower committed to ending the Korean War, as he feared the conflict would escalate from a limited and regional conflict, into a global total war – a continuing concern throughout his presidency. His “New Look” policy was an example of nuclear deterrence. Insurgency- An insurrection by rebelling forces in an attempt to overthrow a government. The United States has undertaken counterinsurgency efforts everywhere from the Philippines to South Vietnam, Afghanistan, and Iraq. Intercontinental Ballistic Missile- A missile capable of hitting targets thousands of miles away. The Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957 ushered the world into the missile age. With improved technology it was suggested soon after the launch that nuclear weapons could be placed on missiles and hit the United States. American fears that they had fallen behind the Soviets technologically led to the supposed “missile gap,” and resulted in President Eisenhower investing huge sums of money and resources into American missile programs, leading ultimately to the U.S. space program in 1958 with the establishment of NASA. International Military Tribunal in Nuremburg- (20 November 1945 – 1st October 1946), Also known as the Nuremberg Trials, the nearly year-long trial following World War II of twenty-one Nazi war leaders by the victorious Allied powers for accused war crimes. Seven Nazi leaders received prison sentences, and twelve were sentenced to death by hanging. Curtis E. LeMay- (1906-1990), U.S. Air Force general, known for his gruff demeanor and ardent advocacy of strategic airpower. Beginning in 1948 Lemay took over the Strategic Air Command (SAC), and with the help of President Eisenhower’s “New Look” formed it into one of the most fear-inducing military forces in American history, capable of delivering nuclear weapons to anywhere in the world in a short time frame. LeMay became Vice Chief of Staff of the Air Force until 1961 and then Chief of Staff from 1961 to 1965. “limited war”- Warfare that puts restraint on the means used during its prosecution. Limited war is distinct from total war, In Korea, President Harry Truman attempted to restrain the conflict to within the Korean borders in order to avoid inciting a Chinese or Soviet response. Throughout the Vietnam War Lyndon Johnson and Richard Nixon carefully chose how, when, and where to attack North Vietnam directly, as well as ostensibly respecting the neutrality of bordering Laos and Cambodia. Douglas MacArthur- (1880-1964), One of the most controversial U.S. Army officers of the twentieth-century known for his superlative egotism. As commander of U.N. forces in the Korean War for the first year of the war, MacArthur was capable of operational brilliance, such as the daring Inchon Landings. His perceived insubordination toward Harry S. Truman, however, led to the president relieving MacArthur of command in April 1951 (see Truman-MacArthur Controversy). massive retaliation- President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s Cold War containment strategy elucidated initially in NSC-162/2, a National Security Council document from October 1953. As a policy it became part of the president’s “New Look.” In practice, massive retaliation threatened the use of nuclear weapons wherever provoked, either targeting the point of communist incursion in the non-communist world, or the specific nations themselves. “McCarthyism”- The targeting of supposed communists in the early 1950s by U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy from Wisconsin. Playing on growing American fears about communist expansion, starting in early 1950 McCarthy used his position as chair of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations to expose communist conspirators in society and the government. He used the relatively new medium of television to spread his hysteria and popularize himself as communist with hunter par excellence. Military-Industrial Complex- Dwight D. Eisenhower’s term to describe what he perceived as the dangerous influence of the military establishment and large arms industries. Elucidated in the president’s farewell address on 17 January 1961, the Cold War warfare state had given rise to close ties between the government and arms manufacturers, and created a more militarized United States. Eisenhower’s feared the potential loss of liberty and a threatened democracy in the name of national security. Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG)- Organized in September 1950, MAAG was part of President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s aid to Indochina in a bid to contain communist expansion in the region. After the Geneva Accords in 1954, the mission became MAAG, Vietnam, and aided Ngo Dinh Diem’s regime with American weapons and military training. MAAG’s role was confined to training and advising. “military unification”- The attempted merger in the mid-1940s of the Army and the Navy into a single service. After a bitter interservice dabate, Congress pasesd the groundbreaking National Security Act of 1947, which among other things combined the War and Navy Departments by creating a new Department of Defense and formed a new and independent U.S. Air Force. National Air and Space Administration (NASA)- A federal organization of the United States, established by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1958. With the Soviet Union’s launching of the Sputnik satellite in 1957, American response to the technological superiority of their Cold War enemy spurred the U.S. government to invest in meeting and surpassing Soviet capabilities in space. National Security Act of 1947- An Act of Congress that the Truman administration intended to be a means of updating an antiquated defense system. There were four primary results of the act: a merger of the Departments of War and Navy into the National Military Establishment, headed by a secretary of defense; the National Security Council was created, thereby centralizing national security policymaking in the executive; the U.S. Air Force became an autonomous branch from the Army; the Central Intelligence Agency was founded. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)- A construct of the Cold War, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization is an intergovernmental military. A European initiative, NATO was born from Western European governments’ fear of Communist subversion in their own countries as well as external Soviet aggression. To thwart these pressures, the Brussels Pact of March 1948 was drafted, which would later become the Western European Union and eventually NATO on 4 April 1949. NSC-68- A Top-Secret report the National Security Council created, completing it on 7 April 1950. Prompted by Secretary of State Dean Acheson to review U.S. national security strategy in the wake of China becoming communist and the Soviet Union detonating an atomic weapon, the Policy Planning Staff, led by Paul Nitze, concluded that the most pressing threat to the United States was the “hostile design” of the Soviet Union, with its almost religious faith in state ideology that called for a global empire. NSC-68 ushered in the Cold War-era strategies of containment. NSC-162/2- A National Security Council report from October 1953 that became the basis of President Eisenhower’s “New Look” policy. In an outline of the possible responses open to the Americans in the event of Chinese or Soviet expansion, the report suggested using nuclear strikes wherever a communist nation attempted an incursion in the non-communist world. Essentially, it was the first articulation of the policy of “massive retaliation,” and supported nuclear weapons as a containment tool. occupation of Japan- The post-WWII presence of the American military in Japan, lasting from August 1945 to April 1952. As Supreme Commander, Allied Powers, General Douglas MacArthur commanded the occupation of the country. Like in Germany there was a military tribunal that tried war criminals. With a new constitution and a new legislature, the Japanese became a democracy – a development the Americans thought crucial to offset communist influence in the region. People’s Liberation Army (PLA)- The army of the People’s Republic of China. Their entrance into the Korean War in October 1950 turned the tide against U.N. forces, and helped to cause a stalemate and eventually an armistice in July 1953. Pusan Perimeter- An important port-city on the southeastern coast of South Korea, Pusan became the last toehold on the mainland after North Korean forces had invaded the country on 25 June 1950. What little resistance had stood in the way of the advancing enemy to that point had easily been swept aside and then forced into the Pusan Perimeter. From 4 August to 17 September 1950 the Americans defended the perimeter before being relieved by the Inchon Landings. Pentomic Division- A U.S. Army organizational structure adopted in 1956 in order to enhance flexibility and mobility on an atomic battlefield. Composed of five battle groups of 1,400 men, each group contained four rifle companies, a mortar battery, and a headquarters company, the division was also capable of using tactical atomic weapons. In reality, however, the Pentomic Division was problematic, and by 1960 the Army readopted the triangular division with three regiments. Pork Chop Hill, Battle of- (23 March – 16 July 1953), A Korean War battle fought in the conflict’s last months during diplomatic talks. In one of the war’s bloodiest battles, the Chinese attacked the American outpost on Pork Chop Hill (named for the hill’s shape) manned by the U.S. 7th Infantry Division. After repelling three tenacious enemy attacks with the support of devastating artillery, the Americans abandoned the position without taking more casualties than the 1,300 they had already suffered. “revolt of the admirals”- A controversy was over which service, the Air Force or the Navy, would be given the responsibility of delivering the U.S. military’s nuclear weapons in the event of war as well as the vitriolic interservice budgetary squabbles and occurred throughout 1949. The House Armed Services Committee initiated hearings, leading the Navy to publicly accuse the Air Force of misleading the government about the adequacy of its aircraft and strategy. Ultimately, Congress sided with the Air Force over the Navy. Hyman G. Rickover- (1900-1986), A U.S. Navy admiral, known as the father of the Nuclear Navy. With expertise in atomic and nuclear energy he became director of the Naval Reactors Branch in the U.S. Navy’s Bureau of Ships in 1949. With visionary foresight, Rickover argued for the use of nuclear power plants on naval vessels. While there Rickover oversaw the design and construction of the world’s first nuclear-powered submarine, USS Nautilus, and its launching in 1954. Matthew Ridgway- (1895-1993), U.S. Army general officer. When Lieutenant General Walton Walker died in a December 1951 jeep accident in Korea, Ridgway took over the Eighth Army there. In mid-January Rigdway’s army pushed back north to the 38th parallel in a coherent and effective offensive, but fighting stalled there mostly into a stalemate for the rest of the war. After President Truman relieved General MacArthur of commander of U.N. forces in April 1951, Ridgway took control of the vacated post. Strategic Air Command (SAC)- United States Air Force command formed in 1946 to execute strategic aviation missions, including long-range bombing and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM). With the help of persuasive proponents in leadership positions, such as Curtis LeMay, throughout the Cold War SAC developed into one of the most dominant service branches in strategic planning. “superpowers”- The two powers who emerged from World War II as the most powerful: the United States and the Soviet Union. Unparalleled in military and economic capabilities (though it would gradually become clear that the U.S. possessed the more vibrant economy), these two nations represented the two ideological blocs during the Cold War in competition with each other. symmetric containment- A conceptual framework historian John Lewis Gaddis created to define varying examples of containment strategies the United States practiced during the Cold War. The idea is represented in Gaddis’s 1982 work, Strategies of Containment. Symmetric containment referred to the United States believing that no part of the world was considered peripheral. Best illustrated by NSC-68 during the Truman administration, symmetric containment argued that the United States would need to develop the capability to respond anywhere in the world and through whatever means necessary. Oliver P. Smith- (1893-1977), U.S. Marine Corps general officer, commander of the 1st Marine Division during the Battle of the Chosin Reservoir in November-December 1950. Smith is best known for his ironic statement after strong Chinese attacks were forcing American forces into withdrawal, “Retreat, hell! We’re not retreating. We’re just advancing in a different direction.” Smith’s leadership allowed the surrounded marines and soldiers to break out of the valley in an 80 mile fighting withdrawal down a narrow road. Task Force Smith- A 525-man force of American soldiers who fought the first engagement of the Korean War against the North Korean Army beginning on 5 July 1950. The task force’s commander, Lieutenant Colonel Charles B. Smith, was ordered to block the enemy advance against 5,000 enemy soldiers and thirty-six tanks. An attempted retreat degraded into chaos, and Task Force Smith suffered 160 casualties and only managed to delay the North Koreans for seven hours and inflict 125 casualties on the enemy. Sputnik- Soviet satellite launched in 1957, the first successful man-made object to orbit Earth. The American reaction was one of shock, since not only had the Soviets beaten them in sending something into space, but it was seemingly a superior design. Fearing that the USSR had become technologically superior, the United States began investing immense sums of money into rocket and space programs, forming NASA in 1958. The U.S. won the “space race” that developed by being the first nation to successfully land a man on the moon in 1969. Battle of Triangle Hill- (14 October – 25 November 1952), A Korean War battle that exemplified the offensive and defensive aspects of trench warfare in the conflict. Control of a ridge changed hands several times over the next 42 days, but the fighting ended with the Chinese remaining firmly ensconced on Triangle Hill. The engagement did not result in decisive war-winning campaigns, but rather added to the body count in a war of attrition. Harry S. Truman- the thirty-third U.S. president from 1945 to 1952. Among the many notable actions taken by Truman during the Cold War, the United States administered the Marshall Plan, sought containment of communism through the Truman Doctrine, executed the Berlin Blockade, racially integrated the U.S. military, and went to war in Korea. Truman-McArthur Controversy- A controversial disagreement between General Douglas MacArthur and Harry S. Truman in March and April 1951. The most egregious example of MacArthur’s insubordination came on 5 April when Representative Joseph Martin read aloud on the floor of Congress a letter from MacArthur effectively critiquing Truman’s handling of the war and calling for a second front against China. As a result, on 11 April the president relieved MacArthur of command, causing unrest at home amongst the general population who still saw the general as a war hero. Truman Doctrine- A generic term for President Harry S. Truman’s response to what he saw as Communist encroachment in Europe. Comprised predominately of monetary and military aid, the Truman Doctrine personified containment. The success of the Truman Doctrine was solidified after the Marshall Plan helped stabilize the tenuous situation in ravaged Europe. The Doctrine would eventually become the basis of American policy throughout the world, in varying degrees, during the Cold War. U-2 Incident- An embarrassing incident for the United States and President Eisenhower on May 1, 1960 when the Soviet Union shot down an Central Intelligence Agency spy plane. Engine troubles on pilot Francis Gary Powers’ Lockheed U-2 forced the aircraft down to an altitude in range for Soviet anti-aircraft missiles. Initial reports from the United States claimed that it was an off-course weather aircraft, but once an indignant Nikita Khrushchev provided images of the pilot and the wreckage, Eisenhower was forced to admit to the fabrication. U.N. Security Council- Born out of World War II, the United Nations was President Franklin Roosevelt’s brainchild, an international organization to avoid confrontation between nations and maintain peace. The Security Council, one of six U.N. organs, was intended to give the United Nations international authority, a lesson that had been learned with the U.N.’s toothless predecessor, the League of Nations. Vietnam- Southeast Asian country and the sight of continual conflict throughout the mid-twentieth century. A French colony since the nineteenth century and part of French Indochina, American involvement, Vietnam was the sight of a painfully protracted American-led war from 1965 until 1973 when the last U.S. troops left the country. South Vietnam fell to the Communist forces from North Vietnam in 1975. Walton H. Walker- (1889-1950), U.S. Army general officer, first commander of the Eighth Army during the Korean War. A capable and courageous leader, Walker coordinated the all-important Pusan Perimeter defense that allowed American forces not only to survive, but to push the enemy back north. Tragically, on 23 December 1950 he was killed in a traffic accident near Seoul. Women’s Armed Services Integration Act- Legislation passed on 12 June 1948 giving women in the U.S. Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force regular status. Integration, however, was not total, as women were disallowed to serve in combat units, naval vessels, and combat aircraft squadrons. Additionally, women in uniform could not rise to above two percent of all personnel, and they could not attain general officer ranks. Chapter 13: American National Security in the Early Cold War, 1945-60Appleman, Roy E. East of Chosin: Entrapment and Breakout in Korea, 1950. Texas A&M University Press, 1990. Brodie, Bernard. Strategy in the Missile Age. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1959. Duncan, Francis. Rickover and the Nuclear Navy: The Discipline of Technology. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1990. Gaddis, John Lewis. Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. Kaplan, Edward. To Kill Nations: American Strategy in the Air-Atomic Age and the Rise of Mutually Assured Destruction. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2015. Linn, Brian McAllister. Elvis’ Army: Cold War GIs and the Atomic Battlefield. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016. May, Elaine Tyler. Homeward Bound:
American Families in the Cold War Era. New York: Basic Books, 1990. McGregor, Morris J. Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965. Washington: Center of Military History, 1982. Millett, Allan R. The War for Korea. 2 vols. University Press of Kansas,
2005-2010. Palmer, Michael A. Origins of Maritime Strategy: The Development of American Naval Strategy,
1945-1955. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1988. Sambaluk, Nicholas Michael. The Outer Space Race: Eisenhower and the
Quest for Aerospace Security. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2015. Taaffe, Stephen R. MacArthur’s Korean War Generals. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2016. Trauschweizer, Ingo. The Cold War U.S. Army: Building Deterrence for Limited War. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2008. Yenne, Bill. SAC: A Primer in Modern Strategic Air Power. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1985. Chapter 13: American National Security in the Early Cold War, 1945–1960Bacevich, Andrew J The Pentomic Era: The U.S. Army between Korea and Vietnam. Washington, DC: National Defense University, 1986. Barlow, Jeffrey From Hot War to Cold: The U.S. Navy and National Security Affairs, 1945–1955 Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009. Birtle, A J Rearming the Phoenix: U.S. Military Assistance to the Federal Republic of Germany, 1950–1960. New York: Garland, 1991. Crane, Conrad C American Air Power Strategy in the Korean War, 1950–1953. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000. Futrell, Robert F The United States Air Force in Korea, 1950–1953. Washington, DC:Office of the Chief of Air Force History, 1983. Gaddis, John Lewis The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947 New York: Columbia, 1972. Hogan, Michael A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945–1954 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. House, Jonathan M A Military History of the Cold War, 1944–1962. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012. Jordan, Robert S., ed Generals in International Politics: NATO’s Supreme Commander Europe. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1987. Kindsvatter, Peter American Soldiers: Ground Combat in the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam Lawrence: University Press of Kansas Press, 2003. Lawrence, Mark Atwood Assuming the Burden: Europe and the American Commitment to War in Vietnam. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2007. Ledbetter, James Unwarranted Influence: Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Military-Industrial Complex. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011. Leffler, Melvyn Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992. Lewis, Adrian The American Culture of War: The History of U.S. Military Force from World War II to Operation Enduring Freedom New York: Routledge, 2012. Rose, John P The Evolution of U.S. Army Nuclear Doctrine, 1945–1980. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1980. Ross, Steven T American War Plans, 1945–1950: Strategies for Defeating the Soviet Union. London: Frank Cass, 1996. Russ, Martin Breakout: The Chosin Reservoir Campaign, Korea 1950. New York: Penguin, 2000. Stuart, Douglas T Creating the National Security State: A History of the Law that Transformed America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008. Stueck, William Rethinking the Korean War: A New Diplomatic and Strategic History Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004. Werrell, Kenneth P Sabres over MiG Alley, Annapolis, MD: Naval Institution Press, 2005. Chapter 13: 1945-1960Site: American Rhetoric, Harry S. Truman: The Truman Doctrine Site: Cold War International History Project Site: Harry S. Truman Presidential Library, The Berlin Airlift Collection Site: Air Force Association Publication, The First 60 Years: The Air Force, 1947 to 2007 -Site: Hoover Institution, Strategies of Containment, Past and Future Site: Central Intelligence Agency, CIA’s Analysis of the Soviet Union, 1947-1991 Site: U.S. Army Center of Military History, Online Bookshelves, Korean War Site: flickr.com, Korean War Historical Images Site: West Point, The Korean War
Battle and Campaign Maps Site: Library of Congress, Veterans History Project Site: U.S. Army Center of Military History, Army Historical Series, The Women’s Army Corps, 1945-1978 Site: Naval History & Heritage Command, The U.S. Navy in the Cold War Era, 1945-1991 Site: U.S. Army Center of Military History, Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965 Site: Strategic-Air-Command.com Chapter 14Chapter 14: Confrontations in the Cold War, 1960-1973Chapter 14 explains a period of confrontation in the Cold War, from 1960 to 1973. When John F. Kennedy became president in 1961, he inherited several serious Cold War challenges from Dwight D. Eisenhower. During the next 34 months, the United States encountered crises in the Caribbean, central Europe, and Southeast Asia, where the Soviet Union asserted its influence. To meet these challenges, Kennedy embraced “Flexible Response” as his strategy of symmetric containment of communist expansion. Nevertheless, he failed to roll back this threat in Cuba and Vietnam. After Kennedy’s assassination in 1963, the new president, Lyndon B. Johnson, expanded on his containment strategy by dramatically increasing the American commitment in Vietnam. He sent up as many as 543,000 American service personnel to that nation. Meanwhile, Johnson faced growing opposition from many anti-war groups on the home front. So great were these domestic pressures and so indecisive were American military efforts in the Vietnam War that Johnson did not run for re-election in 1968. Republican candidate Richard M. Nixon won the presidential election that year. Between 1969 and 1973, he gradually withdrew the U.S. military from South Vietnam, which succumbed to North Vietnamese pressure and surrendered in 1975. This failure to roll back communist expansion constituted the first major defeat in American history. Chapter 14 (1960-1973) GlossaryCreighton Abrams- (1914-1974), U.S. Army general, commander of Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, the head of the American effort in South Vietnam, from 1968 to 1972. A proponent of clear and hold operations rather than William Westmoreland’s search and destroy, Abrams also oversaw the Vietnamization program during the Vietnam War. Following his departure from Southeast Asia, Abrams was Chief of Staff of the Army until his death in 1974. “Americanization”- The gradual replacement of South Vietnamese troops with American combat units beginning in 1965 during the Vietnam War. Anti-War Movement- Domestic opposition to the American war effort in Vietnam, mostly student-led, but also garnering extensive support from intellectuals and civil-rights movements. Initial unrest was muted in 1964 against the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution but as the war escalated so did the vocal opposition to it, culminating with the bloody events at Kent State University in 1970. Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN)- The major ground forces of South Vietnam during the Vietnam War, equipped and trained by the United States; considered by many, perhaps unfairly, to be largely ineffectual. air mobility- The use of helicopters to move men and supplies to and from the battlefield. The United States Army utilized air mobility extensively during the Vietnam War as part of William Westmoreland’s search and destroy operational approach. B-52 “Stratofortress”- Boeing-produced jet-powered heavy bomber. As a strategic bomber the B-52 is capable of carrying conventional bomb loads, as well as nuclear weapons and missiles. Since its debut in the Cold War it remained the Air Force’s principal strategic bomber, allowing them to argue for their continued dominance in national defense. Ap Bac, Battle of – A January 2, 1963 engagement between an overwhelming outnumbered group of Viet Cong fighters and American-advised Army of the Republic of South Vietnam. The poor performance of the ARVN convinced some of the increased need of American assistance. Bay of Pigs- An April 17, 1961 amphibious assault by some 1,400 American-supplied and trained counter-revolutionaries on the southwest coast of Cuba. Planned by the Central Intelligence Agency and approved by the Kennedy administration, the operation ultimately proved a dismal failure, undermining American credibility and bolstering a Cuba-Soviet Union partnership. Berlin Crisis- A diplomatic and military confrontation in 1961 regarding the Soviet demand that American forces withdrawal from the partitioned German city of West Berlin. Cambodian Incursion- The April-July 1970 military campaign into Cambodia by American and South Vietnamese forces during the Vietnam War in order to find and destroy enemy bases and supplies. Combined Action Program- A U.S. Marine pacification effort during the Vietnam War beginning in 1965. Marine units lived in villages and hamlets while training, caring for, and protecting South Vietnamese civilians. “Counterinsurgency”- Counter-guerrilla warfare that utilizes varied methods to defeat insurgencies, usually involving a struggle over political legitimacy and power. Cuban Missile Crisis- An October 1962 confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union over the existence of Soviet nuclear weapons in Cuba capable of reaching almost all of the continental United States. An American naval quarantine forced negotiations that resulted in the removal of the missiles, thus averting the closest instance of nuclear confrontation in the Cold War. The “draft”- Vietnam War-era conscription of U.S. males into the military, prompting opposition to the conflict from many parts of American society. “Flexible Response”- The John F. Kennedy administration strategy of containing communism symmetrically. Depending on the threat the American response could be flexible, countering nuclear attacks with a greater nuclear reply, conventional warfare with similar conventional forces, and counterinsurgency tactics for lower level intensity threats. Gulf of Tonkin Incident- Two separate events in1964 when the USS Maddox and USS Turner Joy reported attacks on their ships on August 2 and August 4, respectively, by North Vietnamese vessels in the Gulf of Tonkin. Using this aggression as justification for a military response, the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution led to an escalation of hostilities in the Vietnam War. Hue, Battle of- A five day battle during the Vietnam War in the South Vietnam city of Hue. Beginning with the Tet Offensive on January 30, 1968, North Vietnamese Army soldiers and Viet Cong fighters quickly captured parts of the city, offering stiff resistance that required street fighting and house clearing operations by U.S. Marine Corps, ARVN, and U.S. Army units. Ia Drang, Battle- The first major clash of American and North Vietnamese military units during the Vietnam War. The battle in November 1965 in South Vietnam’s Central Highlands represented the first combat test of the U.S. Army’s new airmobile division and the concept. A perceived American victory set the stage for the increased use of helicopters for air mobility and search and destroy missions throughout the Vietnam War. Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBM)- Nuclear missiles, controlled by the Air Force in the United States military, capable of reaching targets as distant as 5,000 miles away. The Cold War ICBM arms race eventually led to diplomatic negotiations in the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) between the United States and Soviet Union in an attempt to reduce the likelihood of nuclear war. John F. Kennedy- (1917-1963), U.S. president (1961-1963) and the head of state during some of the tensest moments in the Cold War, including the Bay of Pigs invasion, Berlin Crisis, and the Cuban Missile Crisis. His political strategy of flexible response sought to contain communism with symmetric responses to threats. Khe Sanh, Siege of- The military siege by North Vietnamese Army forces of a U.S. Marine Corps base in South Vietnam’s Central Highlands. Beginning on January 21, 1968, the 6,000 Marines were surrounded by 17,000 NVA troops, in an attempt to distract attention and resources away from the key areas in South Vietnam in preparation for the coming Tet Offensive. Massive American firepower and persistent resupply efforts maintained the U.S. presence until the siege ended seventy-seven days after it began. “light at the end of the tunnel”- Army General William C. Westmoreland’s reassurance during a press conference in November 1967 that progress in the Vietnam War was positive and the end of the war was near. An optimistic prediction that appeared disingenuous two months later when the Tet Offensive appeared to expand the war and demand more American escalation. Lyndon Baines Johnson- (1908-1973), Thirty-sixth president of the United States and head of state during the escalation of American commitment in the Vietnam War. The public opposition to the Vietnam War and its intractable nature in part led to Johnson not seeking the re-nomination of the Democratic Party in the 1968 election. Robert McNamara- (1916-2009), Secretary of defense in the Kennedy and Johnson presidential administrations (1961-1968). A proponent of systems analysis, many of McNamara’s decisions were based upon calculations. Attaining victory in Vietnam was a mathematical problem to him, requiring a balance of American casualties and time against ordnance expended, quantities of American ground troops, and numbers of enemy dead. Harold G. Moore- (1922- ), U.S. Army officer and a lieutenant colonel in command of the 1st Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment, 1st Cavalry Division during the Vietnam War’s first major use of airmobile forces at the Battle of Ia Drang. My Lai Massacre- The March 1968 killing of nearly four hundred South Vietnamese civilians by American soldiers during the Vietnam War. Napalm- Jellied petroleum used tactically and delivered in multiple ways, when ignited napalm adheres to surfaces and burns at a high temperature. Used in World War II and Korea, it is most often associated with the Vietnam War. Richard M. Nixon- (1913-1994), Thirty-seventh President of the United States (1969-1974), and Vice President during the Dwight Eisenhower administration (1953-1961). Promising “peace with honor,” Nixon focused on extricating the United States from the Vietnam War. From 1969 to 1974 he gradually withdrew the U.S. military from Southeast Asia, turning over more of the war’s responsibility to the South Vietnamese in the “Vietnamization” program. Operation CEDAR FALLS- Search and destroy operation during the Vietnam War, lasting from January 8-26, 1967 in the “Iron Triangle” region of South Vietnam. Operation ATTLEBORO- Search and destroy operation during the Vietnam War lasting from September 14 to November 24, 1966; one of the largest airmobile operations by U.S. Army forces to date in the conflict. Operation JUNCTION CITY- Extensive military operation from February 22 to May 14, 1967 during the Vietnam War, featuring one of the largest air assaults to date with 240 helicopters participating in one battle on a single day in March. Operation LINEBACKER- American strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam during the Vietnam War from May to October 1972. Operation LINEBACKER II- American strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam during the Vietnam War from December 18-29, 1972 in an attempt to coerce the North Vietnamese into peace talks. Operation ROLLING THUNDER- A progressively intensive American strategic bombing campaign against industrial and military targets during the Vietnam War from March 1965 to November 1968. “peace with honor”- Richard Nixon’s campaign promise in the 1968 election and his 1973 evaluation of the Paris Peace Accords that American withdraw from South Vietnam was extrication without defeat. Pentagon Papers- Internal classified U.S. Department of Defense histories about the Vietnam War. Secretly copied by a military analyst and leaked to the New York Times who began releasing them to the public in June 1971, the papers revealed that for many years U.S. and political leaders deliberately misled the American public about the war. Search and Destroy- The U.S. military’s Vietnam War strategy under General William C. Westmoreland where American units lured the enemy into the open in order to capitalize on superior U.S. firepower. Strategic Air Command (SAC)- United States Air Force command formed in 1946 to execute strategic aviation missions, including long-range bombing and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM). The policy of massive retaliation, and the American devotion to nuclear weapons as a deterrent to open warfare with the Soviet Union, allowed SAC to appropriate a relatively higher proportion of the military budget compared to other branches. Systems Analysis- The approach used by Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara to analyze complicated issues in component parts by evaluating progress in the Vietnam War through the use of statistics such as body counts and kill ratios. The Tet Offensive- The communist nation-wide offensive during the Vietnam War by the North Vietnam Army and Viet Cong on January 30, 1968, the night of the Lunar New Year. Hitting almost every major U.S. installation and key urban centers, communist forces suffered a devastating defeat in the face of overwhelming U.S. firepower. Despite these victories, Tet was a public relations failure for the Lyndon Johnson administration and turning point in the conflict. UH-1 “Huey”- Officially titled the Iroquois, the Huey (nicknamed due to its original designation: HU) was the U.S. Army’s main utility helicopter throughout the Vietnam War and into the 1970s. Its turbine power-plant made it powerful and dependable, and the Huey became the backbone of William Westmoreland’s search and destroy strategy, ferrying troops and supplies quickly to and from the battlefield. Viet Cong- South Vietnamese communist guerrillas during the Vietnam War. “Vietnamization”- President Richard Nixon’s policy beginning in 1969 that handed over increased combat responsibility in the Vietnam War to the South Vietnamese while American troops began returning home. Vo Nguyen Giap- (1911- ), North Vietnamese Army general during the Vietnam War, and hero of the Viet Minh defeat of French forces at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. “win hearts and minds”- A counterinsurgency approach that attempts to appeal to indigenous populations through programs that build popular support. William Westmoreland- (1914-2005), U.S. Army general, and the commander of Military Assistance Command, Vietnam from 1964 to 1968. The mastermind of an aggressive strategy of attrition through search and destroy missions during the Vietnam War, Westmoreland’s optimistic outlook just before the Tet Offensive helped to discredit his approach. Chapter 14: Confrontations in the Cold War, 1960-1973Burr, William, and Jeffrey P. Kimball. Nixon’s Nuclear Specter: The Secret Alert of 1969, Madman Diplomacy, and the Vietnam War. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2015 Clodfelter, Mark. The Limits of Air Power: The
American Bombing of North Vietnam. New York: Free Press, 1989. Daddis, Gregory. Westmoreland’s War: Reassessing American Strategy in Vietnam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. DeBenedetti,
Charles, with Charles Chatfield. An American Ordeal: The Antiwar Movement of the Vietnam Era. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1990. Freedman, Lawrence. Kennedy’s Wars: Berlin, Cuba, Laos, and Vietnam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Herring, George. America’s Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975. 4th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2002. Logevall, Fredrik. The Embers of War: The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America’s Vietnam. New York: Random House, 2012. McMaster, H.R. Dereliction of Duty: Johnson, McNamara, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Lies That Led to Vietnam. New York: Harper Perennial, 1998. Moore, Harold G., and Joseph Galloway. We Were Soldiers Once… and Young. New York: Random House, 1992. Sheehan, Neil. A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and
America in Vietnam. New York: Vintage, 1988. Sorley, Lewis. Westmoreland: The General Who Lost Vietnam. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2011. Tudda, Chris. A Cold War Turning Point: Nixon and China 1969–1972. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2012. Westheider, James D.
Fighting on Two Fronts: African Americans and the Vietnam War. New York: New York University Press, 1997 Chapter 14: Confrontations in the Cold War, 1960–1973Asselin, Pierre A Bitter Peace: Washington, Hanoi, and the Making of the Paris Agreement Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007. Daddis, Gregory No Sure Victory: Measuring U.S. Army Effectiveness and Progress in the Vietnam War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Galvin, John R Air Assault: The Development of Airmobile Warfare. New York: Hawthorn Books, 1969. Grant, William T Wings of the Eagle: A Kingsmen’s Story. New York: Ivy, 1994. Herring, George C LBJ and Vietnam: A Different Kind of War Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. Huebner, Andrew The Warrior Image: Soldiers in American Culture from the Second World War to the Vietnam Era Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007. Lewis, Adrian The American Culture of War: The History of U.S. Military Force from World War II to Operation Enduring Freedom London: Routledge, 2012. Logevall, Fredrik Choosing War: The Lost Chance for Peace and the Escalation in Vietnam. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. Longley, Kyle Grunts: The American Combat Soldier in Vietnam Armonk, MD: M E. Sharpe, 2008. Kindsvatter, Peter American Soldiers: Ground Combat in the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam Lawrence: University Press of Kansas Press, 2003. Krepinevich, Andrew F., Jr The Army and Vietnam. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. Ives, Christopher K US Special Forces and Counterinsurgency in Vietnam: Military Innovation and Institutional Failure, 1961–1963. London: Routledge, 2007. Mills, Hugh L., Jr., with Robert A. Anderson Low Level Hell: A Scout Pilot in the Big Red One. Novato, CA: Presidio, 1992. Nagl, John Learning to Eat Soup with a Knife: Counterinsurgency Lessons from Malaya and Vietnam. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005. Nguyen, Lien-Hang T Hanoi's War: An International History of the War for Peace in Vietnam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012. Preston, Andrew The War Council: McGeorge Bundy, the NSC, and Vietnam. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006. Reardon, Carol Launch the Intruders! Attack Squadron 75 and the Linebacker Campaigns of 1972. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005. Sorley, Lewis A Better War: The Unexamined Victories and Final Tragedy of America’s Last Years in Vietnam New York: Harcourt, 1999. Spector, Ronald After Tet: The Bloodiest Year in Vietnam. New York: The Free Press, 1993. Tolson, John T Airmobility 1961–1971. Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 1973. Chapter 14: 1960-1973Site: National Security Archive, The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962: The 40th Anniversary Site: ArmageddonLetters.com Site: American Rhetoric, John F. Kennedy Ich bin ein Berliner (I am a Berliner) Site: National Security Archive, LBJ Tapes on the Gulf of Tonkin Incident Site: The Vietnam Center and Archive Site: Miller Center, Lyndon B. Johnson - Presidential Recordings Site: Library of Congress, Veterans History Project Site: Cantigny First Division Oral History Project-Phase I Site: West Point, The
Vietnam War Battle and Campaign Maps Site: The War Times Journal, Ia Drang 1965 and the Defense of Landing Zone X-Ray Site: LZ X-Ray Site: USMC Combat Helicopter Association, Pop-A-Smoke: Visions - A Personal Perspective Site: Naval History & Heritage Command, United States Naval Operations Vietnam, Highlights Site: RecordsofWar.com, The US Air Force in Vietnam: The Bud Harton Collection at the Texas Tech Virtual Vietnam Archive Site: Georgia Tech College of Computing, Vietnam War: Websources Site:
Internet Archive, Fall of Saigon (1975) Chapter 15Chapter 15: From Cold War to Pax Americana to Uncertainty, 1973-2012Chapter 15 discusses the legacy of the Vietnam War and the U.S. military in the post-9/11 world. The Vietnam War cast a long shadow over the next four decades after its end in 1973. Every president had to come to grips with the Vietnam experience and face the ongoing threat of conflict with the Soviet Union or its satellites persisted. Richard M. Nixon and Gerald R. Ford tried to ease Cold War tensions and started to restructure the U.S. military’s personnel policies, doctrines, and weapons in light of lessons of Vietnam. In 1977, the newly-inaugurated President Jimmy Carter unveiled a more cooperative, less antagonistic Cold War strategy; but within three years, America’s enemies exploited and reversed the trend back to more confrontational policies. As a result, the United States returned to a more aggressive Cold War strategy during Ronald W. Reagan’s presidency from 1981 to 1989, entailing a massive military expansion that surpassed the Soviet Union’s ability to keep pace. The disintegration of the Soviet Union ended the Cold War in 1991. During its final months, President George H.W. Bush sent the powerful American military to war in the Persian Gulf to halt aggression and protect American interests. The American victory seemed to herald Pax Americana and a new era of global stability. Beginning in 1993, an optimistic President Bill Clinton cast the U.S. military in peacekeeping and peacemaking roles in regional conflicts. Whereas this direct involvement succeeded in some cases, it stimulated the growth of anti-American terrorism. On September 11, 2001, the hopes for global peace shattered when Islamic fundamentalists killed 3,000 people in terrorist attacks on American soil. President George W. Bush quickly retaliated by sending the U.S. military into Afghanistan because its government harbored the terrorists making the 9/11 attack. Two years later, Bush ordered the invasion of Iraq under the pretext of destroying that nation’s weapons of mass destruction and ousting its dictator, Saddam Hussein. Since 2001, some 2.5 million Americans have deployed to Afghanistan and Iraq to quell insurgencies and establish democratic systems. As of early 2017, it remains unclear if American sacrifices and investments will succeed in the long term. Regardless, fighting these two wars has placed severe strains on the United States and its volunteer military. In this chapter, students will about the evolution of Cold War strategies in the Nixon-Ford, Carter, and Reagan Doctrines. Militarily, this chapter discusses how the U.S. military recovered from Vietnam, particularly by examining the All-Volunteer Force, revised doctrines, and modernized weapons systems. The end of the Cold War and the United States fighting the Gulf War will be explained, as will Pax Americana and Clinton’s new military interventionism. Emphasis will be placed on the age of terror after September 11, 2001 and the implementation of the Bush Doctrine in Operations ENDURING FREEDOM and IRAQI FREEDOM. Finally, the military policies and strategies of President Barrack Obama will be summarized and critiqued. In particular, his preferences for using unmanned drone strikes and special forces missions to achieve his goals will be scrutinized. The case studies of the ongoing American operations at Afghanistan and American involvement in the Syria Civil War will highlight uncertainties of Obama’s second term from 2013 to 2017. Chapter 15 Glossary9/11- A terrorist attack by an Al-Qaeda cell on American targets in 2001. Retaliation by the United States led to the Global War on Terror and the invasion of Afghanistan in October 2001. AirLand Battle- U.S. Army combat doctrine developed by General Donn Starry of TRADOC and published in the 1982 Field Manual 100-5 Operations for an offensive approach against the Soviet Union in a potential war by using combined arms to execute “close,” “deep,” and “rear” operations. All-Volunteer Force- The post-Vietnam War United States military beginning in 1973 that followed the unpopular draft system. Al-Qaeda- Osama bin Laden’s radical terrorist organization responsible for planning and executing the terror attacks of September 11, 2001. Apache helicopter- Developed by Hughes Helicopter, the Apache is the U.S. Army’s primary attack helicopter since its delivery to combat units in 1986. Specifically designed as a tank-killer against Soviet threats during the Cold War, in Iraq and Afghanistan it has filled the role of tactical air support for ground forces. Bosnia- A former Yugoslavian province, the location of NATO peace keeping efforts beginning in 1995 after Serbian military forces invaded in 1992. George H.W. Bush- (1924- ), 41st President of the United States (1989-1993), vice president in the Ronald Reagan administration (1981-1989), Bush was the head of state during the end of the Cold War and throughout the Gulf War. George W. Bush- (1946- ), 43rd President of the United States (2001-2009), son of former president George H.W. Bush. In the wake of the terrorist attacks against the United States on September 11, 2001, Bush led the United States into the Global War on Terror, invading Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq in 2003 as part of the Bush Doctrine – an attempt to bring the perpetrators of 9/11 to justice and to deter future terrorist attacks against the United States. Jimmy Carter- (1924- ), 37th President of the United States (1977-1981), Carter sought a more cooperative Cold War strategy with communists, shifting the military and diplomatic stances to a less belligerent stance. In response to crises in 1980, however, he adopted the Carter Doctrine and amplified the projection of American military power in the Middle East. Richard Cheney- (1941- ), 46th Vice President of the United States during the George W. Bush administration (2001-2009), as well as secretary of defense during the George H.W. Bush administration (1989-1993). Cheney supported the Bush Doctrine that conceived of the post-9/11 in Cold War terms, making the war on terror a zero-sum game and dividing the world into opponents or supporters of terrorism. Bill Clinton- (1946- ), 42nd President of the United States (1993-2001), Clinton’s foreign policy attempted to utilize American power to bring order and democracy to an uncertain post-Cold War world in the hopes of creating Pax Americana – American Peace. In the midst of peacekeeping and humanitarian missions during the Clinton presidency, the U.S. military made several preemptive attacks against perceived threats to American security and global peace. Counterinsurgency (COIN)- Operations to counter rebellions or civil unrest. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century American forces undertook counterinsurgency efforts in the Philippines and disparate areas of Latin America. In the Vietnam War the U.S. military struggled to pacify South Vietnamese communists, and in Iraq and Afghanistan American forces attempted to neutralize radical Islamic terrorists using various COIN methods. “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell”- Department of Defense policy adopted in 1993 that prohibited questions about sexual orientation for those in the U.S. military, yet permitted disciplinary action against anyone claiming to be gay or was caught participating in homosexual or lesbian acts. A controversial policy from the beginning, it was repealed by Barack Obama on September 20, 2011. drones- Unmanned aerial vehicles used extensively in the Global War on Terror as both reconnaissance aircraft and as offensive weapons capable of firing guided missiles. Ann E. Dunwoody - (1953-), The first women to be promoted to the rank of general (four stars) in 2008. She command the U.S. Army Materiel Command. F-15 “Eagle”- The U.S. Air Force’s premier all-weather tactical fighter, entering American service in 1976. F-16 “Falcon”- A U.S. Air Force all-weather single-seat fighter capable of filling air-to-air and air-to-ground roles, entering American service in 1978. Fallujah, Battles of- City fighting during the Iraq War in the Al Anbar province. After the first engagement in April 2004 ended the insurgents returned, necessitating the Second Battle of Fallujah in November-December 2004 with the most brutal combat in Iraq in fierce house to house fighting against 3,000 Iraqi insurgents and Al-Qaeda fighters. Gerald Ford- (1913-2006), The 38th President of the United States (1974-1977), taking the presidency after the resignation of Richard Nixon after the Watergate Scandal. Ford tried to pursue a strategy of asymmetric containment, negotiated nuclear arms limitations with the Soviets, and initiated impactful military reforms in the post-Vietnam era. Global War on Terror- An American-led campaign against terrorism following the attacks on September 11, 2001 in the name of deterring and preventing acts of international terrorism against the United States, of which the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan and the search for terrorist leadership, including Osama bin Laden, are a part. Michelle Howard – (1960-), A graduate of the U.S. Navy Academy, she was first women to command a U.S. Navy ship – the USS Rushmore – in 1999. Howard was also the first women and the first African-American women to be promoted to the rank of admiral (four stars) in the U.S. Navy in 2014. She then served as the Vice Chief of Naval Operations. Field Manual 100-5 Operations- U.S. Army doctrine manual, with the 1976 edition elucidating “Active Defense” and the 1982 edition providing the plans for AirLand Battle. Henry Kissinger- (1923- ), President Richard Nixon’s National Security Advisor and principal foreign policy consultant, and secretary of state in the Gerald Ford administration. Kissinger is known for his political realism, and his attempt in the Nixon and Ford administrations to utilize diplomacy and deterrence rather than symmetric military force to contain communism. “Iran Deal” – In 2015, President Barack Obama and the Iranians agreed to inspections of Iran’s nuclear research sites by the International Atomic Energy Agency. In return, existing trade and financial sanctions against Iran were ended. This agreement highlighted Obama’s approach to foreign and military policy in that the United Nations, not the United States, received the reports on Iran. American detractors have panned the Iran Deal as appeasement of Iran, while Obama’s supporters praise it as an example of multilateralism. ISIS – The acronym for the Islam State of Iraq and Syria. ISIS carved out a new state in parts of Syria and Iraq with Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi as its leader. The ideology of ISIS finds its roots in the radical Sunnite sect of Wahhabism that embraced exceptionally strict interpretations of sharia law. Numbering between 30,000 and 200,000 men, ISIS fighters routinely execute Iraqis and Syrians. These include enemy combatants and civilians, such as more moderate Sunnites, Shi’ites, This made ISIS a mutual enemy. Kosovo- A former province of Yugoslavia and the sight of American and NATO peacekeeping efforts in 1999 in response to atrocities committed by Serbians in the Kosovo War. Iran-Contra Scandal- A political scandal during the Ronald Reagan presidential administration caused by Reagan’s secret authorization of the CIA to finance, train, and arm Nicaragua counterrevolutionaries from 1982-1985 with the profits from illegal sale of weapons to Iran. M-1 Abrams- The main U.S. military battle tank. Entering service in 1980 as part of the Army’s “Big Five” advanced weapons systems projects, it has been used extensively in the Gulf War as well as in the Global War on Terror. Mogadishu, Battle of- An October 3, 1993 raid by elite U.S. special operations units to locate and capture key Somali leaders in the nation’s capital. Several helicopters from the U.S. Army’s 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment crash landed due to hits taken, necessitating rescue attempts. Street fighting against 4,000 Somali militia required an armored relief column to evacuate the American personnel on October 4. National Strategy for Engagement and Enlargement- Otherwise known as the Clinton Doctrine, a 1995 version of the White House document outlined a policy of interventionism in the Clinton Administration. Barack Obama - (1961- ), 44th President of the United States (2009- ). Obama campaigned on the promise of bringing U.S. troops home from Iraq, realized fully when the last American unit left on December 18, 2011, yet ramped up the military presence in Afghanistan in 2010. Obama’s increased use of drones, and extensive use of special operations units embraces the idea of an agile and lean American military that employs the best new weapons systems in limited ways. Operation ANACONDA- The last major battle of Operation Enduring Freedom’s second phase, lasting from March 2-17, 2002. Approximately 2,000 heli-borne U.S. soldiers landed in valleys and mountain passes near the Pakistani border and engaged with Taliban and Al-Qaeda fighters. Operation DESERT STORM- Multinational military operations from January 17 – February 28, 1991 against Iraq after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. American-led coalition forces quickly crossed the Saudi border into Iraq and Kuwait on February 24, and just after 100 hours of combat operations a cease fire was called. Operation ENDURING FREEDOM- An American-led invasion of Afghanistan beginning in 2001 in retaliation for the 9/11 terrorist attacks with the goals of deposing the oppressive Taliban government, destroying Al-Qaeda, and installing a stable political system. Operation IRAQI FREEDOM- (OIF), An American-led war in Iraq with coalition forces acting on intelligence that Saddam Hussein possessed weapons of mass destruction. The first was a conventional war beginning on March 20, 2003 with an invasion of Iraq and lasted until an American military victory and the occupation of Iraq, declared by President George W. Bush on May 1, 2003. The second phase was an insurgency of variable intensity lasting until 2011 with a withdrawal of American troops. Operation EAGLE CLAW- An April 1980 mission to rescue American hostages in Iran by the American special operations unit, Delta Force; aborted due to inclement weather and equipment malfunctions that cost eight American lives. Operation NEW DAWN- Replacement name for Operation IRAQI FREEDOM; beginning in September 2010 Iraqis took more responsibility to maintain the peace between religious factions while American troops began returning home. Operation URGENT FURY- The American invasion of Grenada from October-December 1983 in order to evacuate American citizens and remove its government from power. Osama bin Laden- (1957-2011), Saudi Arabian-born Islamic terrorist and the founder of Al-Qaeda who perpetrated the 9/11 terrorist attacks against the United States. After more than a decade of directing insurgencies while in hiding, American efforts to find bin Laden came to fruition during a May 2, 2011 mission in Pakistan when SEAL Team Six killed the terrorist leader. Persian Gulf War- A conflict in the Persian Gulf from August 1990 to February 1991. After Saddam Hussein’s Iraqi forces invaded Kuwait the international response resulted in an American-led coalition that launched Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm, leading to an Iraqi military defeat and stiff sanctions against the Baghdad regime. David Petraeus- (1952- ), A U.S. Army officer until 2011. As commanding general of the Combined Arms Command that produced Field Manual 3-24 Counterinsurgency, Petraeus carried out the population-centric approach detailed in the manual as head of the American effort in Iraq during the “Surge,” and as commander of U.S. Forces in Afghanistan. Following his retirement from the military he became Director of the Central Intelligence Agency until his resignation in late 2012. “Powell Doctrine”- A national security doctrine named after retired Army general Colin Powell during his time as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Essentially a modified Weinberger Doctrine, it dictated where, when, why, how much, and how long the United States could use military force in an effort to avoid open-ended conflicts like the Vietnam War; adhered to most notably during the Persian Gulf War. Ronald Reagan- (1911-2004), The 40th President of the United States (1981-1989), Reagan’s presidency returned to a more aggressive Cold War strategy than his predecessors. Ending détente and directing the resurgence of military power through increased expenditures, Reagan reinvigorated an anti-communism strategy with the Reagan Doctrine by combining symmetric containment, asymmetric containment, and attempts at rollback in the Third World. Donald Rumsfeld- (1932- ), Secretary of defense in both the Gerald Ford presidency (1975-1977) and the George W. Bush administration 2001-2006. Rumsfeld believed in a neoconservative worldview that called for the United States to exert force in the world to expand American influence and stop potential challenges to U.S. power, lining up with the Bush Doctrine and the Global War on Terror following the 9/11 terrorist attacks. SALT I Treaty- Strategic Arms Limitation Talks treaty from 1972, negotiated during Richard Nixon between the United States and Soviet Union; the agreement froze the numbers of certain nuclear missile systems and their launch sites at the current levels. SALT II Treaty- Strategic Arms Limitation Talks treaty from 1979, negotiated during the Gerald Ford presidency; an agreement between the United States and Soviet Union for the limitation of nuclear arms. “Shock and Awe”- The aerial campaign against Iraqi military and political targets that initiated U.S. combat operations against Iraq in 2003. American policymakers believed that the ferocity and accuracy of U.S. air attacks would distress and overwhelm the Hussein regime and cause it to topple quickly. “Star Wars”- The Strategic Defense Initiative, an anti-ballistic missile program proposed by President Ronald Reagan in 1983. The “Surge”- A 2007 U.S. military counterinsurgency strategy that increased the number of troops in Iraq by 20,000, raising the level to 170,000 Americans in-country. A population-centric approach intended to win Iraqi hearts and minds developed and executed by General Petraeus, the “Surge” included eighteen months of intensive operations, ending in July 2008. Syrian Civil War – 2011-present. After an uprising among Syrians caused by the “Arab Spring,” fighting erupted between the Army of Syria’s dictator President Bashar al-Assad and rebels. By 2013, the Syrian Civil War pitted Sunnite nations supporting the rebels against Assad and Shi’ite nations. Early the next year, a new group of Sunnite extremists— the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria or “ISIS”— entered the fray and added more confusion because they attacked all other factions. Taliban – An Islamic fundamentalist political movement that rose to power in Afghanistan during the 1990s and provided sanctuary to terrorist groups. The 2001 American-led invasion of Afghanistan targeted the Taliban in response to the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States. TRADOC – Part of the post-Vietnam U.S. Army reforms, the Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) was an organization that absorbed training, doctrinal, and combat development tasks. Its first two commanders were General William E. DePuy and General Donn A. Starry. Weinberger Doctrine – Named after Reagan’s defense secretary, Caspar Weinberger, this doctrine was born from the American experiences in Vietnam. In 1984, Weinberger argued there needed to be strict limitations and carefully-defined parameters for use of American military power. If criteria were satisfied, then force could be utilized. These ideas set the tone for the rest of the Reagan years and presaged subsequent presidential doctrines for the use of military power. Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) – The primary justification for the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003. President George W. Bush deemed Saddam Hussein’s alleged development of WMDs and destabilizing presence in the Middle East to be threats. There was historical precedence for Iraq using WMDs, as Hussein used poison gas against the Kurdish population in northern Iraq in 1988, killing at least 3,000 and injuring another 7,000. women in combat – An ongoing debate that occurred throughout the post-Vietnam U.S. military. President Obama and the Defense Department lifted the ban on female combatants on January 24, 2013, effectively opening up almost every Military Occupational Specialty to women who comprise 14 percent or 200,000 members of the U.S. military. Yom Kippur War – A war between Israel and neighboring Arab nations, Egypt and Syria, that began on 6 October 1973. Egyptian and Syrian troops launched two surprise attacks into Israeli-held territory and used Soviet-made T-62 and T-72 tanks. Both sides employed combined arms operations and tactics with lethal results. American strategists took note of the conflict, making the Yom Kippur Wars the 1970s model for how the United States would fight the Soviet Union in Europe. Chapter 15: From Cold War to Pax Americana to Uncertainty, 1973-2012Bailey, Beth. America’s Army: Making of the All-Volunteer Force. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009. Bailey, Beth, and Richard H. Immerman, eds. Understanding the U.S. Wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. New York: New York University Press, 2015. Black, Jeremy. War in the Modern World, 1990–2014. London and New York: Routledge, 2014. Bolger, Daniel. Why We Lost: A General’s Inside Account of the Iraq and Afghanistan Wars. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2014. Bowden, Mark. Black Hawk Down: A Story of Modern War. New York: Atlantic Monthly, 1999. Deane, Anthony E., and Douglas Niles. Ramadi Declassified: A Roadmap to Peace in the Most Dangerous City in Iraq. Bay Village, OH: Praetorian Books, 2016. Echevarria, Antulio J., II. Reconsidering the American Way of War: U.S Military Practice from the Revolution to Afghanistan. Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2014. Evans, Ryan, editor-in-chief. War on the Rocks (blog). www.warontherocks.com. Gordon, Michael R., and Bernard Trainor. The Generals’ War: The Inside Story of the Conflict in the Gulf. Boston: Little, Brown, 1995. Haynes, Peter D. Toward a New Maritime Strategy: American Naval Thinking on the Post-Cold War Era. 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Fred. The Insurgents: David Petraeus and the Plot to Change the American Way of War. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2013. Jones, Seth G. In the Graveyard of Empires: America’s War in Afghanistan. New York: W.W. Norton, 2009. Lambeth, Benjamin S. The Transformation of American Air Power. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000. Ricks, Thomas. Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq, 2003 to 2005. New York: Penguin Books, 2006. Romaniuk, Scott N., and Francis Grice, eds. The Future of US Warfare. London and New York: Routledge,
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2008. Woodward, Bob. Obama’s Wars. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010. Chapter 15: From Cold War to Pax Americana to Uncertainty, 1973–2012Bacevich, Andrew J The Limits of Power: The End of American Exceptionalism. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2008. Baybrook, Roy Air Power: The Coalition and Iraqi Air Forces. London: Osprey, 1991. Bellavia, David House to House: An Epic Memoir of War. New York: Free Press, 2007. Blackwell, James Thunder in the Desert: The Strategy and Tactics of the Persian Gulf War. New York: Bantam Books, 1991. Carhart, Tom Iron Soldiers; How America's First Armored Division Crushed Iraq's Elite Republican Guard. New York: Pocket Books, 1994. Clark, Wesley K Waging Modern War: Bosnia, Kosovo, and the Future of Combat. New York: Public Affairs, 2002. Crane, Conrad C Avoiding Vietnam: The US Army’s Response to Defeat in Southeast Asia. Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, 2002. Friedman, Norman Unmanned Combat Air Systems: A New Kind of Carrier Aviation. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2010. Gallagher, Matt Kaboom: Embracing the Suck in a Savage Little War. Cambridge: Da Capo Press, 2010. Galula, David Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006. Gordon, Michael R., and Bernard E. Trainor, Cobra II: The Inside Story of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq New York: Pantheon Books, 2006 Kilcullen, David Counterinsurgency Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. Mahnken, Thomas G Technology and the American Way of War since 1945. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. Metz, Steven Iraq and the Evolution of American Strategy Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2008. Naylor, Sean Not a Good Day to Die: The Untold Story of Operation Anaconda. New York: Berkley Books, 2005. Ricks, Thomas E The Gamble: General David Petraeus and the American Military Adventure in Iraq, 2006–2008. New York: Penguin, 2009. Rico, Johnny Blood Makes the Grass Grow Green: A Year in the Desert with Team America. New York: Presidio Press, 2007. Ucko, David H The New Counterinsurgency Era: Transforming the U.S. Military for Modern Wars. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2009. Willbanks, James Abandoning Vietnam: How America Left and South Vietnam Lost Its War Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2008. Wright, Donald et al A Different Kind of War: The U.S. Army in Operation Enduring Freedom, October 2001–2005 Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press, May 2010. Chapter 15: 1973-2012Site: Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library, “The Vietnam War Declassification Project” Site: University of California Santa Barbara, The American Presidency Project, Ronald Reagan Address to the Nation on Defense and National Security Site: FRONTLINE, The Gulf War: An In-Depth Examination of the 1990-1991 Persian Gulf Crisis Site: The Air University, A National Security Strategy for Engagement and Enlargement Site: U.S. Government Printing Office, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States Site: West Point, The First Gulf War Battle and Campaign Maps Site: West Point, The War in Afghanistan Battle and Campaign Maps Site: University of California Santa Barbara, The American Presidency Project, George W. Bush Address to the Nation on Iraq Site: West Point,
The War in Iraq Battle and Campaign Maps Site: MilBlogging.com Site: PBS, POV: Regarding
War Site: Ohio University, Cantigny First
Division Oral History Project- Phase II Site: Ball State University, Cantigny First Division Oral History Project-Phase III Site: Official Department of the Army Publications and Forms, FM 3-24 Counterinsurgency Site: Clemson University Faculty Webpage, Iraq Wars Bibliography Site: Library of Congress Web Archives Minerva: Iraq War, 2003 Web Archive Site: U.S. Army Center of Military History, Global War on Terrorism Site: The White House, President Obama at Fort Bragg: "Welcome Home" Which statement best explains why revolts in Arabia and North and West Africa tended to be strongly religious in character?Which statement best explains why revolts in Arabia and North and West Africa tended to be strongly religious in character? People in these areas felt the political decline of Islamic states in the face of growing European influence.
What was one of the reasons for the collapse of the Taiping Rebellion quizlet?What was one of the reasons for the collapse of the Taiping Rebellion? It failed to attract strong support from the peasants. It received from Western powers, which alienated the majority of the Chinese people. It failed to attract strong support from the landed gentry and other elite groups.
What did Tenskwatawa advise his followers to do to rid Indian lands of invaders?To limit state power while expanding that of the individual. What did Tenskwatawa advise his followers to do to rid Indian lands of the white man? pg. 613-616;Return to the traditional Indian rites and lifestyle.
In what ways did the Mayans who followed Jose Maria Barrera resemble the Chinese who followed Hong in the Taiping Rebellion?In what way did the Mayans who followed José María Barrera resemble the Chinese who followed Hong in the Taiping Rebellion? Both the Mayans and the Chinese followed visionaries who formed alternative religions that combined Christian beliefs, symbols, and rituals with traditional beliefs and legends.
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Which goals were common to all three of the following rebel movements Wahhabism The Indian rebellion and the Shawnee rebellion of Tenskwatawa?
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