When a speaker ______blank, she restates or summarizes an authors ideas in her own words.

Key Terms channel (18) listener (18) stage fright (8) frame of reference (19) adrenaline (10) feedback (19) positive nervousness (10) interference (20) visualization (12) situation (20) critical thinking (16) ethnocentrism (23) speaker (17) message (18) Review Questions After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 1. In what ways is public speaking likely to make a difference in your life? 2. How is public speaking similar to everyday conversation? 3. How is public speaking different from everyday conversation? 4. Why is it normal—even desirable—to be nervous at the start of a speech? 5. How can you control your nervousness and make it work for you in your speeches? 6. What are the seven elements of the speech communication process? How do they interact to determine the success or failure of a speech? 7. What is ethnocentrism? Why do public speakers need to avoid ethnocentrism when addressing audiences with diverse cultural, racial, or ethnic backgrounds? Exercises for Critical Thinking 25 1. Think back on an important conversation you had recently in which you wanted to achieve a particular result. (Examples: asking your employer to change your work schedule; explaining to a friend how to change the oil and filter in a car; attempting to talk your spouse or partner into buying the computer you like rather than the one he or she prefers.) Work up a brief analysis of the conversation. In your analysis, explain the following: (1) your purpose in the conversation and the message strategy you chose to achieve your purpose; (2) the communication channels used during the conversation and how they affected the outcome; (3) the interference—internal or external—you encountered during the conversation; (4) the steps you took to adjust to feedback; (5) the strategic changes you would make in preparing for and carrying out the conversation if you had it to do over again. 2. Divide a sheet of paper into two columns. Label one column “Characteristics of an Effective Public Speaker.” Label the other column “Characteristics of an Ineffective Public Speaker.” In the columns, list and briefly explain what you believe to be the five most important characteristics of effective and ineffective speakers. Be prepared to discuss your ideas in class. 3. On the basis of the lists you developed for Exercise 2, candidly evaluate your own strengths and weaknesses as a speaker. Identify the three primary aspects of speechmaking you most want to improve. Exercises for Critical Thinking 2 Ethics and Public Speaking The Importance of Ethics Guidelines for Ethical Speaking Plagiarism Guidelines for Ethical Listening W hen the rumors started, Brian Pertzborn, chief financial officer for a prominent charity in the southwest United States, called a press conference. Dozens of reporters showed up. Brian looked directly into the cameras and said, “I assure you that no one at this charity has taken money away from the children and families we work so hard to serve. Embez- zlement is illegal and a serious breach of trust. I would never let either happen.” Brian’s presentation was highly convincing, and for a time it quieted the rumors. Unfortunately, his statements were false. Two months later, he was indicted by the federal government for stealing more than $2.5 million from the charity. At the trial, it became clear that Brian was guilty as charged. It also came out that on the very day of his press conference, he had tried to cover his tracks by transferring some of the embezzled money to an overseas bank account. When the judge sentenced Brian to a stiff prison sentence, she made clear that she was influenced partly by Brian’s lies at the press conference. Had he told the truth, his pleas for leniency might have been better received. This is not a happy story, but it shows why public speaking needs to be guided by a strong sense of integrity. Brian Pertzborn was persuasive when speaking to the press, but he was unethical in lying to cover his illegal activities. As a result, he hurt people who relied on the charity, destroyed his reputation, and ended up with a long jail sentence. Perhaps if he had confessed before the cameras that day, he would have received a fine and a reprimand instead of the harshest sentence the judge could impose. 26 ©Drew Angerer/Getty Images The goal of public speaking is to gain a desired response from listeners—but not at any cost. Speechmaking is a form of power and therefore carries with it heavy ethical responsibilities. As the Roman rhetorician Quintilian stated 2,000 years ago, the ideal of speechmaking is the good person speaking well. In this chapter, we explore that ideal by looking at the importance of ethics in public speaking, the eth- ical obligations of speakers and listeners, and the practical problem of plagiarism and how to avoid it. ethics The Importance of Ethics The branch of philosophy that deals with issues of right and Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with issues of right and wrong in human wrong in human affairs. affairs. Questions of ethics arise whenever we ask whether a course of action is moral or immoral, fair or unfair, just or unjust, honest or dishonest. We face such questions daily in almost every part of our lives. The parent must decide how to deal with a child who has been sent home from school for unruly behavior. The researcher must decide whether to shade her data “just a bit” to gain credit for an important scientific breakthrough. The shopper must decide what to do with the $5 extra change mistakenly given by the clerk at the grocery store. The stu- dent must decide whether to say anything about a friend he has seen cheating on a final exam. Questions of ethics also come into play whenever a public speaker faces an audi- ence. In an ideal world, as the Greek philosopher Plato noted, all public speakers would be truthful and devoted to the good of society. Yet history tells us that the power of speech is often abused—sometimes with disastrous results. Adolf Hitler was unquestionably a persuasive speaker. His oratory galvanized the German people, but his aims were horrifying and his tactics despicable. He remains to this day the ulti- mate example of why the power of the spoken word needs to be guided by a strong sense of ethical integrity. As a public speaker, you will face ethical issues at every stage of the speechmak- ing process—from the initial decision to speak through the final presentation of the message. And the answers will not always be easy. Consider the following example: Felicia Robinson is running for school board in a large eastern city. Her opponent is conducting what Felicia regards as a highly unethical cam- paign. In addition to twisting the facts about school taxes, the opponent is pandering to racial prejudice by raising resentment against African Ameri- cans and recently arrived immigrants. Five days before the election, Felicia, who is slightly behind in the polls, learns that the district attorney is preparing to indict her opponent for shady business practices. But the indictment will not be formally issued until after the election. Nor can it be taken as evidence that her opponent is guilty—like all citizens, he has the right to be presumed innocent until proven otherwise. Still, news of the indictment could be enough to throw the election F­ elicia’s way, and her advisers urge her to make it an issue in her remain- ing campaign speeches. Should Felicia follow their advice? 28 CHAPTER 2 Ethics and Public Speaking There are creditable arguments to be made on both sides of the ethical dilemma ethical decisions faced by Felicia Robinson. She has tried to run an honest campaign, and she is trou- Sound ethical decisions involve bled by the possibility of unfairly attacking her opponent—despite the fact that he weighing a potential course of has shown no such scruples himself. Yet she knows that the impending indictment action against a set of ethical may be her last chance to win the election, and she is convinced that a victory for standards or guidelines. her opponent will spell disaster for the city’s school system. Torn between her com- mitment to fair play, her desire to be elected, and her concern for the good of the community, she faces the age-old ethical dilemma of whether the ends justify the means. “So,” you may be asking yourself, “what is the answer to Felicia Robinson’s dilemma?” In complex cases such as hers there are no cut-and-dried answers. As the leading book on communication ethics states, “We should formulate meaningful e­ thical guidelines, not inflexible rules.”1 Your ethical decisions will be guided by your values, your conscience, and your sense of right and wrong. But this does not mean such decisions are simply a matter of personal whim or fancy. Sound ethical decisions involve weighing a potential course of action against a set of ethical standards or guidelines. Just as there are guidelines for ethical behavior in other areas of life, so there are guidelines for ethical conduct in public speaking. These guidelines will not automatically solve every ethical quandary you face as a speaker, but knowing them will provide a reliable compass to help you find your way. Guidelines for Ethical Speaking MAKE SURE YOUR GOALS ARE ETHICALLY SOUND Several years ago, I spoke with a former student—we’ll call her Melissa—who had turned down a job in the public relations department of the American Tobacco I­nstitute. Why? Because the job would have required her to lobby on behalf of the cigarette industry. Melissa did not believe she could ethically promote a product that she saw as responsible for thousands of deaths and illnesses each year. Given Melissa’s view of the dangers of cigarette smoking, there can be no doubt that she made an ethically informed decision. On the other side of the coin, some- one with a different view of cigarette smoking could make an ethically informed decision to take the job. The point of this example is not to judge the rightness or wrongness of Melissa’s decision (or of cigarette smoking), but to illustrate how ­ethical considerations can affect a speaker’s choice of goals. Your first responsibility as a speaker is to ask whether your goals are ethically sound. During World War II, Hitler stirred the German people to condone war, inva- sion, and genocide. More recently, we have seen politicians who betray the public trust for personal gain, business leaders who defraud investors of millions of dollars, preachers who lead lavish lifestyles at the expense of their religious duties. There can be no doubt that these are not worthy goals. But think back for a moment to the examples of speechmaking given in C­ hapter 1. What do the speakers hope to accomplish? Help disadvantaged kids. Improve the quality of education. Pay tribute to a fellow worker. Support Habitat for Humanity. Few people would question that these goals are ethically sound. Guidelines for Ethical Speaking 29 As with other ethical issues, there can be gray areas when it comes to assessing a speaker’s goals—areas in which reasonable people with well-defined standards of right and wrong can legitimately disagree. But this is not a reason to avoid asking ethical questions. If you are to be a responsible public speaker, you cannot escape assessing the ethical soundness of your goals. BE FULLY PREPARED FOR EACH SPEECH “A speech,” as Jenkin Lloyd Jones stated, “is a solemn responsibility.” You have an obligation—to yourself and to your listeners—to prepare fully every time you stand in front of an audience. The obligation to yourself is obvious: The better you prepare, the better your speech will be. But the obligation to your listeners is no less import- ant. Think of it this way: The person who makes a bad 30-minute speech to an audi- ence of 200 people wastes only a half hour of her or his own time. But that same speaker wastes 100 hours of the audience’s time—more than four full days. This, Jones exclaimed, “should be a hanging offense!” At this stage of your speaking career, of course, you will probably not be facing many audiences of 200 people. And you will probably not be giving many speeches in which the audience has come for the sole purpose of listening to you. But neither the size nor the composition of your audience changes your ethical responsibility to be fully prepared. Your speech classmates are as worthy of your best effort as if you were addressing a jury or a business meeting, a union conference or a church congre- gation, the local city council or even the United States Senate. Being prepared for a speech involves everything from analyzing your audience to creating visual aids, from organizing your ideas to rehearsing your delivery. Most crucial from an ethical standpoint, though, is being fully informed about your s­ ubject. Why is this so important? Consider the following story: Victoria Nuñez, a student at a large state university, gave a classroom speech on suicide prevention. Victoria had learned about the topic from her mother, a volunteer on a suicide-prevention hotline, but she also con- sulted her psychology textbook, read several articles on the warning signs of suicide, and interviewed a crisis-intervention counselor at the campus health service. In addition to her research, Victoria gave a lot of thought to planning and delivering her speech. She created a handout for the class listing signs that a person might attempt suicide and providing contact informa- tion for local mental-health resources. On the day of her speech, Victoria was thoroughly prepared—and she gave an excellent presentation. Only a few days later, one of Victoria’s classmates, Paul Nichols, had a conversation with his roommate that raised a warning flag about whether the roommate might be depressed and in danger of suicide. Based on the information in Victoria’s speech, Paul spoke to his roommate, got him to talk about his worries, and convinced him to seek counseling. Paul might have saved his roommate’s life, thanks to Victoria’s speech. This is an especially dramatic case, but it demonstrates how your speeches can have a genuine impact on your listeners. As a speaker, you have an ethical 30 CHAPTER 2 Ethics and Public Speaking Questions of ethics arise whenever a speaker faces an audience. Here Ecuadorian national representative Lourdes Tibán speaks on behalf of indigenous peoples. ©NurPhoto/Getty Images responsibility to consider that impact and to make sure you prepare fully so as not to communicate erroneous information or misleading advice. If Victoria had not done such a thorough job researching her speech, she might have given her classmates faulty information—information that might have had tragic results. No matter what the topic, no matter who the audience, you need to explore your speech topic as thoroughly as possible. Investigate the whole story; learn about all sides of an issue; seek out competing viewpoints; get the facts right. Not only will you give a better speech, you will also fulfill one of your major ethical obligations. BE HONEST IN WHAT YOU SAY Nothing is more important to ethical speechmaking than honesty. Public speaking rests on the unspoken assumption that “words can be trusted and people will be truthful.”2 Without this assumption, there is no basis for communication, no reason for one person to believe anything that another person says. Does this mean every speaker must always tell “the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth”? We can all think of situations in which this is impossible (because we do not know the whole truth) or inadvisable (because it would be tact- less or imprudent). Consider a parent who tells his two-year-old daughter that her screeching violin solo is “beautiful.” Or a speaker who tells a falsehood in circum- stances when disclosing the truth might touch off mob violence. Few people would find these actions unethical.3 Guidelines for Ethical Speaking 31 In contrast, think back to the case of Brian Pertzborn at the start of this chapter. Brian knew he had embezzled money from the charity. Yet he denied that he had done so, even as he was profiting at the expense of people who depended on the charity’s services. There is no way to excuse Brian’s behavior. Such blatant contempt for the truth is one kind of dishonesty in public speaking. But more subtle forms of dishonesty are just as unethical. They include juggling ­statistics, quoting out of context, misrepresenting sources, painting tentative find- ings as firm conclusions, citing unusual cases as typical examples, and substituting innuendo and half-truths for evidence and proof. All of these violate the speaker’s duty to be accurate and fair in presenting information. While on the subject of honesty in speechmaking, we should also note that ethi- cally responsible speakers do not present other people’s words as their own. They do not plagiarize their speeches. This subject is so important that we devote a separate section to it later in this chapter. name-calling AVOID NAME-CALLING AND OTHER FORMS The use of language to defame, OF ABUSIVE LANGUAGE demean, or degrade individuals or groups. “Sticks and stones can break my bones, but words can never hurt me.” This popular children’s chant could not be more wrong. Words may not literally break people’s Bill of Rights bones, but they can leave psychological scars as surely as sticks and stones can leave The first 10 amendments to the physical scars. As one writer explains, “Our identities, who and what we are, how United States Constitution. others see us, are greatly affected by the names we are called and the words with which we are labeled.”4 This is why communication ethicists warn public speakers to avoid name-calling and other forms of abusive language. Name-calling is the use of language to defame, demean, or degrade individuals or groups. When applied to various groups in America, it includes such epithets as “redskin,” “fag,” “kike,” “nigger,” “honkey,” “wop,” “jap,” “chink,” and “spic” that have been used to label people because of their sexual orientation, religious beliefs, or ethnic background. Such terms are ethically suspect because they stereotype and devalue the people in question. Name-calling is also a destructive social force. When used repeatedly and s­ystematically over time, it helps reinforce attitudes that encourage prejudice, hate crimes, and civil rights violations.5 The issue is not one of political correctness, but of respecting the dignity of diverse groups in contemporary society. In addition, name-calling and abusive language pose ethical problems in public speaking when they are used to silence opposing voices. A democratic society depends upon the free and open expression of ideas. In the United States, all citizens have the right to join in the never-ending dialogue of democracy. As a public speaker, you have an ethical obligation to help preserve that right. This obligation is the same regardless of whether you are black or white, Christian or Muslim, male or female, gay or straight, liberal or conservative. Like other ethical questions in public speaking, name-calling raises some thorny issues. Although name-calling can be hazardous to free speech, it is still protected under the free-speech clause of the Bill of Rights. This is why broadly worded codes against hate speech on college campuses—and in society at large—have not survived legal challenges.6 32 CHAPTER 2 Ethics and Public Speaking Questions of ethics arise whenever a speaker faces an audience. Of all the ethical obligations facing a speaker, none is more important than honesty in order to maintain the bond of trust with speakers. ©Steve Debenport/Getty Images But regardless of the legal issues, they do not alter the ethical responsibility of public speakers to avoid name-calling and abusive language. Legality and ethics, though related, are not identical. There is nothing illegal about falsifying statistics in a speech, but there is no doubt that it is unethical. The same is true of name-calling. It may not be illegal to cast racial, religious, sexual, or religious slurs at people in a speech, but it is still unethical. Not only does it demean the dignity of the groups or individuals being attacked, but it undermines the right of all groups in the United States to be fairly heard.7 PUT ETHICAL PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE It is easy to pay lip service to the importance of ethics. It is much harder to act e­ thically. Yet that is just what a responsible public speaker must do. As one popular book on ethics states, “Being ethical means behaving ethically all the time—not only when it’s convenient.”8 As you work on your speeches, you will ask yourself such questions as “Is my choice of topic suitable for the audience?” “Are my supporting materials clear and convincing?” “How can I phrase my ideas to give them more punch?” These are stra- tegic questions. As you answer them, you will try to make your speech as informative, as persuasive, or as entertaining as possible. But you will also face moments of ethical decision—similar, perhaps, to those faced by Brian Pertzborn, Felicia Robinson, and other speakers in this chapter. When those moments arrive, don’t simply brush them aside and go on your way. Keep in mind the guidelines for ethical speechmaking we have discussed and do your best to follow them through thick and thin. Make sure you can answer yes to all the questions on the Checklist for Ethical Public Speaking.9 Guidelines for Ethical Speaking 33 checklist Ethical Public Speaking YES NO   1. Have I examined my goals to make sure they are ethically sound? a. Can I defend my goals on ethical grounds if they are questioned or challenged? b. Would I want other people to know my true motives in presenting this speech? 2. Have I fulfilled my ethical obligation to prepare fully for the speech? a. Have I done a thorough job of studying and researching the topic? b. Have I prepared diligently so as not to communicate erroneous or misleading information to my listeners? 3. Is the speech free of plagiarism? a. Can I vouch that the speech represents my own work, my own thinking, my own language? b. Do I cite the sources of all quotations and paraphrases? 4. Am I honest in what I say in the speech? a. Is the speech free of any false or deliberately deceptive statements? b. Does the speech present statistics, testimony, and other kinds of evidence fairly and accurately? c. Does the speech contain valid reasoning? d. If the speech includes visual aids, do they present facts honestly and reliably? 5. Do I use the power of language ethically? a. Do I avoid name-calling and other forms of abusive language? b. Does my language show respect for the right of free speech and expression? 6. All in all, have I made a conscious effort to put ethical principles into practice in preparing my speech? plagiarism Plagiarism Presenting another person’s language or ideas as one’s Plagiarism comes from plagiarius, the Latin word for kidnapper. To plagiarize means own. to present another person’s language or ideas as your own—to give the impression you have written or thought something yourself when you have actually taken it from someone else.10 We often think of plagiarism as an ethical issue in the classroom, but it can have repercussions in other situations: As director of education for the Toronto (Canada) School Board, Chris Spence gave numerous speeches, in addition to writing newspaper 34 CHAPTER 2 Ethics and Public Speaking a­ rticles and blog posts about his thoughts on education. Many people called him inspiring and his personality larger-than-life. Then reporters discovered that portions of Spence’s speeches and w­ ritings were lifted word-for-word from other people. They also noticed that passages of his doctoral dissertation at the University of Toronto lacked proper attribution. One newspaper referred to him as a “serial p­ lagiarist” who repeatedly published “inspirational columns and blogs and speeches that were moving and thought-provoking—but not at all his own.” As the revelations mounted, Spence faced severe criticism within the school district and had little choice but to resign from his position, putting an end to his once stellar career. “There are no excuses for what I did,” he said. “I didn’t give credit where credit was due.”11 As this story shows, plagiarism is a serious matter. If you are caught plagiarizing a speech in class, the punishment can range from a failing grade to expulsion from school. If you are caught plagiarizing outside the classroom, you stand to forfeit your good name, to damage your career, or, if you are sued, to lose a large amount of money. It is worth your while, then, to make sure you know what plagiarism is and how to avoid it. GLOBAL PLAGIARISM global plagiarism Stealing a speech entirely from Global plagiarism is stealing your speech entirely from another source and passing it a single source and passing it off as your own. The most blatant—and unforgivable—kind of plagiarism, it is grossly off as one’s own. unethical. Global plagiarism in a college classroom usually occurs because a student puts off the assignment until the last minute. Then, in an act of desperation, the student downloads a speech from the Internet or gets one written by a friend and delivers it as his or her own. The best way to avoid this, of course, is not to leave your speech until the last minute. Most instructors explain speech assignments far enough in advance that you should have no trouble getting an early start. By starting early, you will give yourself plenty of time to prepare a first-rate speech—a speech of your own. If, for some reason, you fail to get your speech ready on time, do not succumb to the lure of plagiarism. Whatever penalty you suffer from being late will pale in com- parison with the consequences if you are caught plagiarizing. PATCHWORK PLAGIARISM patchwork plagiarism Stealing ideas or language Unlike global plagiarism, in which a speaker pirates an entire speech from a single from two or three sources and source, patchwork plagiarism occurs when a speaker pilfers from two or three passing them off as one’s own. sources. Here’s an example: Lexi Nau chose “The Benefits and Drawbacks of Autonomous Vehicles” as the topic for her informative speech. In her research, Lexi found three especially helpful sources. The first was a recent article in the journal Sci- ence on the ethical challenges of programming autonomous vehicles. The second was Wikipedia, and the third was the Web site of the Stanford Uni- versity C­ enter for Automotive Research. Plagiarism 35 Unfortunately, instead of using these materials creatively to write a speech in her own words, Lexi lifted long passages from the article, from Wikipedia, and from the university Web site and patched them together with a few transitions. When she was finished, she had a speech that was composed almost entirely of other people’s words. When Lexi’s teacher read her speech outline, it did not sound authentic to him. So he plugged several phrases from the outline into Google. In less than a minute, he had found both the Wikipedia article and the Stanford University Web site. After searching on Google Scholar, he also found the journal article. Lexi was caught red-handed. This story illustrates an important point about plagiarism. Lexi did not take her speech from a single source. She even did a little research. But copying from a few sources is no less plagiarism than copying from a single source. When you give a speech, you declare that it is your work—the product of your thinking, your beliefs, your language. Lexi’s speech did not contain any of these. Instead, it was cut and pasted wholly from other people’s words. “But,” you may be thinking, “not many students are experts on their speech top- ics. Why should they be expected to come up with new ideas that even the experts haven’t thought of?” The answer is they aren’t. The key is not whether you have something absolutely original to say, but whether you do enough research and thinking to come up with your own slant on the topic. As with global plagiarism, one key to averting patchwork plagiarism is to start working on your speech as soon as possible. The longer you work on it, the more apt you are to come up with your own approach. It is also vital to consult a large number of sources in your research. If you have only two or three sources, you are far more likely to fall into the trap of patchwork plagiarism than if you consult a wide range of research materials. incremental plagiarism INCREMENTAL PLAGIARISM Failing to give credit for particular parts of a speech In global plagiarism and patchwork plagiarism, the entire speech is cribbed more or that are borrowed from other less verbatim from a single source or a few sources. But plagiarism can exist even people. when the speech as a whole is not pirated. This is called incremental plagiarism. It occurs when the speaker fails to give credit for particular parts—increments—of the speech that are borrowed from other people. The most important of these incre- ments are quotations and paraphrases. Quotations Whenever you quote someone directly, you must attribute the words to that person. Suppose you are giving a speech on Malcolm X, the famous African-American leader of the 1960s. While doing your research, you run across the following passage from Bruce Perry’s acclaimed biography, Malcolm: The Life of the Man Who Changed Black America: Malcolm X fathered no legislation. He engineered no stunning Supreme Court victories or political campaigns. He scored no major electoral tri- umphs. Yet because of the way he articulated his followers’ grievances and anger, the impact he had upon the body politic was enormous.12 36 CHAPTER 2 Ethics and Public Speaking Speakers who begin work on their speeches early and consult a wide range of sources are less likely to fall into the trap of plagiarism than are speakers who procrastinate and rely on a limited number of sources. ©Wavebreak Media Ltd/123RF This is a fine quotation that summarizes the nature and importance of ­Malcolm’s impact on American politics. It would make a strong addition to your speech—as long as you acknowledge Perry as the author. The way to avoid plagiarism in this instance is to introduce Perry’s statement by saying something like: In Malcolm: The Life of the Man Who Changed Black America, historian Bruce Perry says the following about Malcolm’s impact on American ­politics: . . . Or, According to historian Bruce Perry in his book Malcolm: The Life of the Man Who Changed Black America, . . . Now you have clearly identified Perry and given him credit for his words rather than presenting them as your own. Paraphrases paraphrase To restate or summarize an When you paraphrase an author, you restate or summarize her or his ideas in your author’s ideas in one’s own own words. Suppose, once again, that your topic is Malcolm X. But this time you words. decide to paraphrase the statement from Bruce Perry’s biography rather than q­ uoting it. You might say: Malcolm X was not a politician. He did not pass any laws, or win any Supreme Court victories, or get elected to any office. But he stated the grievances and anger of his followers so powerfully that the whole nation took notice. Plagiarism 37 Even though you do not quote Perry directly, you still appropriate the structure of his ideas and a fair amount of his language. Thus you still need to give him credit— just as if you were repeating his words verbatim. It is especially important in this case to acknowledge Perry because you are bor- rowing his opinion—his judgment—about Malcolm X. If you simply recount basic facts about Malcolm’s life—he was born in Omaha, Nebraska; he converted to the Nation of Islam while in prison; he traveled to Mecca toward the end of his life; he was assassinated in February 1965—you do not have to report the source of your information. These facts are well known and can be found in any standard reference work. On the other hand, there is still considerable debate about Malcolm’s views of other African-American leaders, the circumstances surrounding his death, and what he might have done had he lived. If you were to cite Perry’s views on any of these matters—regardless of whether you quoted or paraphrased—you would need to acknowledge him as your source. As more than one speaker (and writer) has discovered, it is possible to commit incre- mental plagiarism quite by accident. This is less offensive than deliberate plagiarism, but it is plagiarism nonetheless. There are two ways to guard against incremental plagiarism. The first is to be careful when taking research notes to distinguish among direct quotations, paraphrased material, and your own comments. (See Chapter 7 for a full discussion of research methods.) The second way to avoid incremental plagiarism is to err on the side of caution. In other words, when in doubt, cite your source. PLAGIARISM AND THE INTERNET When it comes to plagiarism, no subject poses more confusion—or more t­emptation— than the Internet. Because it’s so easy to copy information from the Web, many people are not aware of the need to cite sources when they use Internet materials in their speeches. If you don’t cite Internet sources, you are just as guilty of plagiarism as if you take information from print sources without proper citation. One way to avoid patchwork plagiarism or incremental plagiarism when work- ing with the Internet is to take careful research notes. Make sure you keep a record of the following: (1) the title of the Internet document, (2) the author or organiza- tion responsible for the document, (3) the date on which the document was last updated, and (4) the date on which you accessed the site. You will need all this information for your speech bibliography. You will also need to identify your Internet sources when you present the speech. It’s not enough to say “As I found on the Web” or “According to the Internet.” You need to specify the author and the Web site. In Chapter 8, we’ll look more closely at how to cite Internet documents. For now, keep in mind that providing such citations is one of your ethical responsibilities as a public speaker. Another problem with regard to the Internet is the large number of Web sites that sell entire speeches or papers. In addition to being highly unethical, using mate- rial from one of these sites is extremely risky. The same technology that makes it easy to plagiarize from the Web makes it easy for instructors to locate material that has been plagiarized and the exact source from which it has been taken. 38 CHAPTER 2 Ethics and Public Speaking Using public speaking in your CAREER Having graduated with a degree in public a­ dministration After reading the speech, however, your enthusiasm and hoping to pursue a career in politics, you have is dampened. You agree wholeheartedly with its support been fortunate to receive a staff position of a bill to fund scholarships for low-income students, with one of the leading senators in your but you’re dismayed by its attack on opponents of the state legislature. Since your arrival two bill as “elitist bigots who would deny a college education months ago, you have answered to those who need it most.” You haven’t been asked to phones, ordered lunch, made c­ opies, stapled mailings, and stuffed comment on the ethics of the speech, and you e­ nvelopes. Finally you have been certainly don’t want to jeopardize your position asked to look over a speech the on the senator’s staff. At the same time, you senator will deliver at your alma think his use of name-calling may actually mater. Surely, you think, this will arouse sympathy for the opposition. be the first of many important The senator would like your assignments once your value is comments in two hours. What will recognized. you tell him? ©Peshkova/Shutterstock You should also know that almost all the speeches (and papers) offered for sale on the Web are of very low quality. If you are ever tempted to purchase one, keep in mind there is a good chance you will waste your money and get caught in the pro- cess. Here, as in other aspects of life, honesty is the best policy. Guidelines for Ethical Listening So far in this chapter we have focused on the ethical duties of public speakers. But speechmaking is not a one-way street. Listeners also have ethical obligations. They are (1) to listen courteously and attentively, (2) to avoid prejudging the speaker, and (3) to maintain the free and open expression of ideas. Let us look at each. BE COURTEOUS AND ATTENTIVE Imagine that you are giving your first classroom speech. You have put a great deal of time into writing the speech, and you have practiced your delivery until you are confident you can do well—especially once you get over the initial rush of stage fright. You have worked hard on your introduction, and your speech gets off to a fine start. Most of your classmates are paying close attention, but some are not. One appears to be doing homework for another class. Another keeps sneaking glances at his cell phone. Two or three are gazing out the window, and one is leaning back in his chair with his eyes shut! Guidelines for Ethical Listening 39 You try to block them out of your mind—especially since the rest of the class seems interested in what you are saying—but the longer you speak, the more concerned you become. “What am I doing wrong?” you wonder to yourself. “How can I get these people to pay attention?” The more you think about this, the more your confidence and concentration waver. When you momentarily lose your place halfway through the speech, you start to panic. Your nerves, which you have held in check so far, take the upper hand. Your major thought now becomes, “How can I get this over as fast as possible?” Flustered and distracted, you rush through the rest of your speech and sit down. Just as public speakers have an ethical obligation to prepare fully for each speech, so listeners have a responsibility to be courteous and attentive during the speech. This responsibility—which is a matter of civility in any circumstance—is espe- cially important in speech class. You and your classmates are in a learning situation in which you need to support one another. When you listen to speeches in class, give your fellow students the same cour- tesy and attention you want from them. Come to class prepared to listen to—and to learn from—your classmates’ speeches. As you listen, be conscious of the feedback you are sending the speaker. Sit up in your chair rather than slouching; maintain eye contact with the speaker; show support and encouragement in your facial expres- sions. Keep in mind the power you have as a listener over the speaker’s confidence and composure, and exercise that power with a strong sense of ethical responsibility. AVOID PREJUDGING THE SPEAKER We have all heard that you can’t judge a book by its cover. The same is true of speeches. You can’t judge a speech by the name, race, lifestyle, appearance, or repu- tation of the speaker. As the National Communication Association states in its Credo for Ethical Communication, listeners should “strive to understand and respect” speakers “before evaluating and responding to their messages.”13 This does not mean you must agree with every speaker you hear. Your aim is to listen carefully to the speaker’s ideas, to assess the evidence and reasoning offered in support of those ideas, and to reach an intelligent judgment about the speech. In Chapter 3, we will discuss specific steps you can take to improve your listening skills. For now, it is enough to know that if you prejudge a speaker—either positively or negatively—you will fail in one of your ethical responsibilities as a listener. MAINTAIN THE FREE AND OPEN EXPRESSION OF IDEAS As we saw earlier in this chapter, a democratic society depends on the free and open expression of ideas. The right of free expression is so important that it is protected by the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which declares, in part, that “Con- gress shall make no law . . . abridging the freedom of speech.” Just as public speakers need to avoid name-calling and other tactics that can undermine free speech, so lis- teners have an obligation to maintain the right of speakers to be heard. As with other ethical issues, the extent of this obligation is open to debate. D­ isputes over the meaning and scope of the First Amendment arise almost daily in 40 CHAPTER 2 Ethics and Public Speaking It is vital for a democratic society to maintain the free and open expression of ideas. Here student Mya Middleton speaks at the March for Our Lives rally in Washington, D.C., after the Parkland, Florida, school shooting. ©Noam Galai/WireImage/Getty Images connection with issues such as terrorism, surveillance, bullying, and hate speech. The question underlying such disputes is whether all speakers have a right to be heard. There are some kinds of speech that are not protected under the First ­Amendment—including defamatory falsehoods that destroy a person’s reputation, threats against the life of the President, and inciting an audience to illegal action in circumstances where the audience is likely to carry out the action. Otherwise, the Supreme Court has held—and most experts in communication ethics have agreed— that public speakers have an almost unlimited right of free expression. In contrast to this view, it has been argued that some ideas are so dangerous, so misguided, or so offensive that society has a duty to suppress them. Because of dis- plays of hate speech around the country, including on college campuses, this argu- ment has gained support in recent years. Yet free-speech advocates would ask: Who is to determine which ideas are too dangerous, misguided, or offensive to be uttered? Who is to decide which speakers are to be heard and which are to be silenced? No matter how well intentioned they may be, efforts to “protect” society by restricting free speech usually end up repressing minority viewpoints and unpopular opinions. In U.S. history, such efforts were used to keep women off the public plat- form until the 1840s, to muzzle labor organizers during the 1890s, and to impede civil rights leaders in the 1960s. Imagine what American society might be like if these speakers had been silenced! It is important to keep in mind that ensuring a person’s freedom to express her or his ideas does not imply agreement with those ideas. You can disagree entirely with the message but still support the speaker’s right to express it. As the National Communication Association states in its Credo for Ethical Communication, “free- dom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent” are vital to “the informed decision making fundamental to a civil society.”14 Guidelines for Ethical Listening 41 Summary Because public speaking is a form of power, it carries with it heavy ethical responsibili- ties. Today, as for the past 2,000 years, the good person speaking well remains the ideal of commendable speechmaking. There are five basic guidelines for ethical public speaking. The first is to make sure your goals are ethically sound—that they are consistent with the welfare of society and your audience. The second is to be fully prepared for each speech. The third is to be honest in what you say. The fourth is to avoid name-calling and other forms of abusive language. The final guideline is to put ethical principles into practice at all times. Of all the ethical lapses a speaker can commit, few are more serious than plagia- rism. Global plagiarism is lifting a speech entirely from a single source. Patchwork pla- giarism involves stitching a speech together by copying from a few sources. Incremental plagiarism occurs when a speaker fails to give credit for specific quotations and para- phrases that are borrowed from other people. In addition to your ethical responsibilities as a speaker, you have ethical obligations as a listener. The first is to listen courteously and attentively. The second is to avoid prejudging the speaker. The third is to support the free and open expression of ideas. In all these ways, your speech class will offer a good testing ground for questions of ethical responsibility. Key Terms global plagiarism (35) patchwork plagiarism (35) ethics (28) incremental plagiarism (36) ethical decisions (29) paraphrase (37) name-calling (32) Bill of Rights (32) plagiarism (34) Review Questions After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 1. What is ethics? Why is a strong sense of ethical responsibility vital for public speakers? 2. What are the five guidelines for ethical speechmaking discussed in this chapter? 3. What is the difference between global plagiarism and patchwork plagiarism? What are the best ways to avoid these two kinds of plagiarism? 4. What is incremental plagiarism? How can you steer clear of it when dealing with quotations and paraphrases? 5. What are the three guidelines for ethical listening discussed in this chapter? 42 CHAPTER 2 Ethics and Public Speaking Exercises for Critical Thinking 1. Look back at the story of Felicia Robinson on pages 28–29. Evaluate her dilemma in light of the guidelines for ethical speechmaking presented in this chapter. Explain what you believe would be the most ethical course of action in her case. 2. The issue of insulting and abusive speech—especially slurs directed against people on the basis of race, religion, gender, or sexual orientation—is extremely controversial. Do you believe society should punish such speech with criminal penalties? To what degree are colleges and universities justified in trying to discipline students who engage in such speech? Do you feel it is proper to place any boundaries on free expression to prohibit insulting and abusive speech? Why or why not? Be prepared to explain your ideas in class. 3. All of the following situations could arise in your speech class. Identify the ethical issues in each and explain what, as a responsible speaker or listener, your course of action would be. a. You are speaking on the topic of prison reform. In your research, you run across two public opinion polls. One of them, an independent survey by the Gallup Organization, shows that a majority of people in your state oppose your posi- tion. The other poll, suspect in its methods and conducted by a partisan organi- zation, says a majority of people in your state support your position. Which poll do you cite in your speech? If you cite the second poll, do you point out its shortcomings? b. When listening to an informative speech by one of your classmates, you realize that much of it is plagiarized from a Web site you visited a couple of weeks ear- lier. What do you do? Do you say something when your instructor asks for com- ments about the speech? Do you mention your concern to the instructor after class? Do you talk with the speaker? Do you remain silent? c. While researching your persuasive speech, you find a quotation from an article by a highly respected expert that will nail down one of your most important points. But as you read the rest of the article, you realize that the author does not in fact support the policy you are advocating. Do you still include the quota- tion in your speech? Why or why not? Exercises for Critical Thinking 43 3 Listening Listening Is Important Listening and Critical Thinking Four Causes of Poor Listening How to Become a Better Listener R ose Finnegan burst through the front door of her condo ready to share the good news: She had just been promoted to operations manager at the FedEx distribution center where she works. Bubbling with excite- ment, she found her husband on the couch staring into his laptop. “Guess what?” she asked. “What?” he replied, his eyes never leaving the computer screen. “I got the promotion at work!” “That’s great,” he murmured. “Let’s go out to dinner to celebrate,” she said, heading into the bedroom to change clothes. Fifteen minutes later, Rose emerged from the bedroom and saw her hus- band in the same position on the couch, his eyes still glued to the screen. Finally looking up, he noticed his wife’s clothes. “You look nice!” he exclaimed. “Where are you going?” hearing This story illustrates what one research study after another has revealed—most people The vibration of sound waves are shockingly poor listeners. We fake paying attention. We can look right at some- on the eardrums and the firing one, appear interested in what that person says, even nod our head or smile at the of electrochemical impulses in appropriate moments—all without really listening. the brain. Not listening doesn’t mean we don’t hear. Hearing is a physiological process, involving the vibration of sound waves on our eardrums and the firing of electro- chemical impulses from the inner ear to the central auditory system of the brain. But listening involves paying close attention to, and making sense of, what we hear. Even 44 ©sturti/Getty Images when we think we are listening carefully, we usually grasp only 50 percent of what we hear. After 24 hours we can remember only 10 percent of the original message.1 It’s little wonder that listening has been called a lost art.2 Listening Is Important listening Although most people listen poorly, there are exceptions. Top-flight business execu- Paying close attention to, and tives, successful politicians, brilliant teachers—nearly all are excellent listeners.3 So making sense of, what we hear. much of what they do depends on absorbing information that is given verbally—and absorbing it quickly and accurately. If you had an interview with the president of a major corporation, you might be shocked (and flattered) to see how closely that person listened to your words. In our communication-oriented age, listening is more important than ever. According to one study, more than 60 percent of errors made in business come from poor listening.4 In another study, conducted by the management consulting firm Accenture, 64 percent of respondents stated that listening has become more difficult because of the digital distractions of today’s workplace—phones, computers, m­ essages, notifications, and so on.5 Replacing poor listening with good listening improves efficiency, sales, customer satisfaction, and employee morale. This is why, in most companies, effective listeners hold higher positions and are promoted more often than ineffective listeners. When business managers are asked to rank-order the communication skills most crucial to their jobs, they usually rank listening number one.6 Even if you don’t plan to be a corporate executive, the art of listening can be helpful in almost every part of your life. This is not surprising when you realize that people spend more time listening than in any other communicative activity—more than reading, more than writing, more even than speaking. Think for a moment about your own life as a college student. Most class time in U.S. colleges and universities is spent listening to discussions and lectures. A num- ber of studies have shown a strong correlation between listening and academic suc- cess. Students with the highest grades are usually those with the strongest listening skills. The reverse is also true—students with the lowest grades are usually those with the weakest listening skills.7 There is plenty of reason, then, to take listening seriously. Employers and employees, parents and children, wives and husbands, doctors and patients, s­ tudents and teachers—all depend on the apparently simple skill of listening. R­ egardless of your profession or walk of life, you never escape the need for a well-trained ear. Listening is also important to you as a speaker. It is probably the way you get most of your ideas and information—from television, radio, conversation, and lec- tures. If you do not listen well, you will not understand what you hear and may pass along your misunderstanding to others. Besides, in class—as in life—you will listen to many more speeches than you give. It is only fair to pay close attention to your classmates’ speeches; after all, you want them to listen carefully to your speeches. An excellent way to improve your own 46 CHAPTER 3 Listening speeches is to listen attentively to the speeches of other people. Over and over, instructors find that the best speakers are usually the best listeners. A side benefit of your speech class is that it offers an ideal opportunity to work on the art of listening. During the 95 percent of the time when you are not s­ peaking, you have nothing else to do but listen and learn. You can sit there like a stone—or you can use the time profitably to master a skill that will serve you in a thousand ways. Listening and Critical Thinking One of the ways listening can serve you is by enhancing your skills as a critical appreciative listening thinker. We can identify four kinds of listening:8 Listening for pleasure or enjoyment. Appreciative listening—listening for pleasure or enjoyment, as when we listen to music, to a comedy routine, or to an entertaining speech. empathic listening Listening to provide emotional Empathic listening—listening to provide emotional support for the speaker, as support for a speaker. when a psychiatrist listens to a patient or when we lend a sympathetic ear to a friend in distress. comprehensive listening Listening to understand the Comprehensive listening—listening to understand the message of a speaker, as message of a speaker. when we attend a classroom lecture or listen to directions for finding a friend’s house. critical listening Listening to evaluate a Critical listening—listening to evaluate a message for purposes of accepting or message for purposes of rejecting it, as when we listen to the sales pitch of a car salesperson or the cam- accepting or rejecting it. paign speech of a political candidate. Although all four kinds of listening are important, this chapter deals primarily with comprehensive listening and critical listening. They are the kinds of listening you will use most often when listening to speeches in class, when taking lecture notes in other courses, when communicating at work, and when responding to the barrage of commercials, political messages, and other persuasive appeals you face every day. They are also the kinds of listening that are most closely tied to critical thinking. As we saw in Chapter 1, critical thinking involves a number of skills. Some of those skills—summarizing information, recalling facts, distinguishing main points from minor points—are central to comprehensive listening. Other skills of critical thinking—separating fact from opinion, spotting weaknesses in reasoning, judging the soundness of evidence—are especially important in critical listening. When you engage in comprehensive listening or critical listening, you must use your mind as well as your ears. When your mind is not actively involved, you may be hearing, but you are not listening. In fact, listening and critical thinking are so closely allied that training in listening is also training in how to think. At the end of this chapter, we’ll discuss steps you can take to improve your skills in comprehensive and critical listening. If you follow these steps, you may also become a better critical thinker. Listening and Critical Thinking 47 spare “brain time” Four Causes of Poor Listening The difference between the rate at which most people talk NOT CONCENTRATING (120 to 180 words a minute) and the rate at which the brain The brain is incredibly efficient. Although we talk at a rate of 120 to 180 words a can process language (400 to minute, the brain can process 400 to 500 words a minute.9 This would seem to make 500 words a minute). listening very easy, but actually it has the opposite effect. Because we can process a speaker’s words and still have plenty of spare “brain time,” we are tempted to inter- rupt our listening by thinking about other things. Here’s what happens: A senior majoring in kinesiology, Jessica Chen is excited to be wrap- ping up her course work. She is particularly eager to finish her class on exercise and mental health, which meets at 3 p.m. on Fridays. Her profes- sor is great—this is her second class with him—but keeping focused on Friday afternoon can be a challenge. On this particular Friday in April, Jessica’s professor is lecturing on the relationship between body temperature and anxiety. “This calming effect,” he explains, “often stems from a person’s increased temperature. . . .” “Temperature,” thinks Jessica, her eyes drifting out the window next to her. “I bet it’s almost 75 degrees. Beach weather. I can’t wait for Newport in July. . . .” Sternly, Jessica pulls her attention back to the lecture. Her professor is now reviewing research on regular exercise and the immune system, which J­ essica heard about last semester. As a result, her attention wan- ders once more. “I haven’t been to the gym in five days,” she thinks. “But the student gym is always so busy. Maybe I should get a membership at the health club. I wonder how much that would cost?” “. . . a topic that Jessica encountered during her internship last summer,” the professor is saying. Uh oh! What topic does the professor mean? Everyone looks at Jessica, as she frantically tries to recall the connection between exercise, the immune system, and her internship. It’s not that Jessica meant to lose track of the discussion. But there comes a point at which it’s so easy to let your thoughts wander rather than to concentrate on what is being said. After all, concentrating is hard work. Louis Nizer, the famous trial lawyer, once said: “So complete is this concentration that at the end of a court day in which I have only listened, I find myself wringing wet despite a calm and casual manner.”10 Later in this chapter, we’ll look at some things you can do to concentrate better on what you hear. LISTENING TOO HARD Until now we have been talking about not paying close attention to what we hear. But sometimes we listen too hard. We turn into human sponges, soaking up a speak- er’s every word as if every word were equally important. We try to remember all the names, all the dates, all the places. In the process we often miss the speaker’s main point. What is worse, we may end up confusing the facts as well. Shortly after graduating from college, Carlos Molina landed an excellent job as an app developer. Knowing he had never been good at budgeting his money, he signed up for a financial planning workshop. 48 CHAPTER 3 Listening People spend more time listening than in any other communicative activity. One benefit of your speech class is that it can improve your listening skills in a variety of situations. ©simonkr/Getty Images The first session was about retirement planning. Simone Fisher, who was conducting the workshop, explained that 7 in 10 Americans between the ages of 22 and 35 do not have a monthly budget or a savings plan. Carlos wrote down every number Simone mentioned. “To have a retirement income equal to 75 percent of your current sal- ary,” Simone continued, “you will need to invest at least 6 percent of your present earnings. You also need to account for inflation over time. This afternoon, we will meet with each of you personally to calculate your indi- vidual savings needs. In the meantime, I want to stress that the most important thing is to start saving now.” Carlos zealously typed each statistic into his laptop. When Simone opened the floor for questions, Carlos raised his hand and said, “I have two questions. When should I start saving for retirement? And how do I figure out how to account for future inflation?” This is a typical example of losing the speaker’s point by concentrating on details. Carlos had fixed his mind on remembering all the statistics in Simone’s pre- sentation, but he blocked out the main message—that it is best to start saving now and that he would get help developing an individual plan. Rather than trying to remember everything a speaker says, efficient listeners usually concentrate on main points and evidence. We’ll discuss these things more thoroughly later in the chapter. JUMPING TO CONCLUSIONS 49 Alyssa Shields, a recent college graduate, took a job as a staff writer for a local enter- tainment and fashion blog. Shortly after Alyssa arrived, the blog’s editor left the magazine for another job. For the next two months, Alyssa struggled to handle the former editor’s blog posts by herself. She often felt in over her head, but she knew this was a good opportunity to learn, and she hated to give up her new responsibilities. Four Causes of Poor Listening One day Michael Perkins, publisher of the blog, calls Alyssa to talk. The follow- ing conversation takes place: Michael: You’ve done a great job these last two months, Alyssa. But you know we really need a new editor. So we’ve decided to make some changes. Alyssa: I’m not surprised; I know this is an important site. Michael: Yes, it is. And it’s not an easy job. We really need an editor and a staff writer or two to handle all the work. That’s why I wanted to tell you . . . Alyssa: I understand. I knew all along that I was just filling in. Michael: A lyssa, you’re not listening. Alyssa: Yes, I am. You’re trying to be nice, but you’re going to tell me that you’ve hired a new editor and I’ll be going back to my old job. Michael: No, that’s not it at all. I think you’ve done a fine job under difficult circum- stances. You’ve proved yourself, and I intend to make you the editor. We’re also going to hire two new writers to work under you. Why is there so much confusion here? Clearly, Alyssa is unsure about her future at the blog. So when Michael starts to talk about making some changes, Alyssa jumps to a conclusion and assumes the worst. The misunderstanding could have been avoided if, when Michael had said, “We’ve decided to make some changes,” Alyssa had asked, “What changes?”—and then listened. This is one form of jumping to conclusions—putting words into a speaker’s mouth. It is one reason why we sometimes communicate so poorly with people we are closest to. Because we’re so sure we know what they mean, we don’t listen to what they actually say. Another way of jumping to conclusions is prematurely rejecting a speaker’s ideas as boring or misguided. That would be a mistake. Let’s say the announced topic is “Architecture and History.” It sounds dull. So you tune out—and miss a fascinating discussion filled with human-interest stories about buildings and other structures from the ancient pyramids to the latest skyscrapers. Nearly every speech has something to offer you—whether it be information, point of view, or technique. You are cheating yourself if you prejudge and choose not to listen. FOCUSING ON DELIVERY AND PERSONAL APPEARANCE As new parents interested in finding a good day care for their young daughter, Abby and Noah were excited to attend an information session at a school close to their apartment. At 10:00 a.m. Saturday morning, they gathered in a classroom with 20 other parents to hear from the school’s director. When the director entered the room in a wheelchair, Noah glanced quizzically at Abby. For the next 20 minutes, they listened as the director discussed the school’s curriculum, activities, and opportunities for young children. “It sounds like a great school,” Abby said when they got back to the car. But Noah seemed concerned. “What’s wrong?” Abby asked. “I know you’re going to think this is stupid,” Noah began, “but I never pictured the director in a wheelchair. Now I can’t get the idea out of my 50 CHAPTER 3 Listening head. Would she really be able to handle a school full of energetic little kids?” This story illustrates a common problem. Sometimes we judge people by the way they look or speak and don’t listen to what they say. It’s easy to become dis- tracted by a speaker’s accent, personal appearance, or vocal mannerisms and lose sight of the message. Focusing on a speaker’s delivery or personal appearance is one of the major sources of interference in the speech communication process, and it is something we always need to guard against. How to Become a Better Listener TAKE LISTENING SERIOUSLY The first step toward becoming a better listener is to accord listening the seriousness it deserves. Good listeners are not born that way. They have worked at learning how to listen effectively. Good listening does not go hand in hand with intelligence, e­ ducation, or social standing. Like any other skill, it comes from practice and self-­ discipline. Check your current skills as a listener by completing the Listening Self-Evaluation Worksheet on page 52.11 Once you have identified your shortcom- ings as a listener, make a serious effort to overcome them. BE AN ACTIVE LISTENER active listening Giving undivided attention to a So many aspects of modern life encourage us to listen passively. We listen to Spotify speaker in a genuine effort to while studying. Parents listen to their children while fixing dinner. Television report- understand the speaker’s point ers listen to a politician’s speech while walking around the auditorium looking for of view. their next interview. This type of passive listening is a habit—but so is active listening. Active listeners give their undivided attention to the speaker in a genuine effort to understand his or her point of view. In conversation, they do not interrupt the speaker or finish his or her sentences. When listening to a speech, they do not allow themselves to be dis- tracted by internal or external interference, and they do not prejudge the speaker. They take listening seriously and do the best they can to stay focused on the speaker and his or her message.12 There are a number of steps you can take to improve your skills of active listen- ing. They include resisting distractions, not allowing yourself to be diverted by a speaker’s appearance or delivery, suspending judgment until you have heard the speaker out, focusing your listening, and developing note-taking skills. We’ll discuss each of these in turn. RESIST DISTRACTIONS 51 In an ideal world, we could eliminate all physical and mental distractions. In the real world, however, we cannot. Because we think so much faster than a speaker can talk, it’s easy to let our attention wander. Sometimes it’s very easy—when the room is too hot, when construction machinery is operating right outside the window, when the speaker is tedious. But our attention can stray even in the best of circumstances—if for no other reason than a failure to stay alert and make ourselves concentrate. How to Become a Better Listener LISTENING SELF-EVALUATION How often do you indulge in the following bad listening habits? Check yourself carefully in each one. HABIT FREQUENCY SCORE 1. Giving in to mental Almost Usually Sometimes Seldom Almost distractions Always Never 2. Giving in to physical distractions 3. Trying to recall everything a speaker says 4. Rejecting a topic as uninteresting before hearing the speaker 5. Faking paying attention 6. Jumping to conclusions about a speaker’s meaning 7. Deciding a speaker is wrong before hearing everything she or he has to say 8. Judging a speaker on personal appearance 9. Not paying attention to a speaker’s evidence 10. Focusing on delivery rather than on what the speaker says TOTAL How to score: 2 For every “almost always” checked, give yourself a score of 4 6 For every “usually” checked, give yourself a score of 8 10 For every “sometimes” checked, give yourself a score of For every “seldom” checked, give yourself a score of For every “almost never” checked, give yourself a score of Total score interpretation: 0 to 70 You need lots of training in listening. 71 to 89 You listen well. 90 to 100 You listen exceptionally well. 52 CHAPTER 3 Listening Effective listeners take their task seriously. If you approach listening as an active process, you will significantly sharpen your powers of concentration and comprehension. ©ESB Professional/Shutterstock Whenever you find this happening, make a conscious effort to pull your mind back to what the speaker is saying. Then force it to stay there. One way to do this is to think ahead of the speaker—try to anticipate what will come next. This is not the same as jumping to conclusions. When you jump to conclusions, you put words into the speaker’s mouth and don’t listen to what is said. In this case you will listen—and measure what the speaker says against what you had anticipated. Another way to keep your mind on a speech is to review mentally what the speaker has already said and make sure you understand it. Yet another is to listen between the lines and assess what a speaker implies verbally or says nonverbally with body language. Suppose a speaker is introducing someone to an audience. The speaker says, “It gives me great pleasure to present to you my very dear friend, Ash- ley Hauser.” But the speaker doesn’t shake hands with Ashley. He doesn’t even look at her—just turns his back and leaves the podium. Is Ashley really his “very dear friend”? Probably not. Attentive listeners can pick up all kinds of clues to a speaker’s real message. At first you may find it difficult to listen so intently. If you work at it, however, your concentration is bound to improve. DON’T BE DIVERTED BY APPEARANCE OR DELIVERY 53 If you had attended Abraham Lincoln’s momentous Cooper Union speech of 1860, this is what you would have seen: The long, ungainly figure upon which hung clothes that, while new for this trip, were evidently the work of an unskilled tailor; the large feet and clumsy hands, of which, at the outset, at least, the orator seemed to be unduly conscious; the long, gaunt head, capped by a shock of hair that seemed not to have been thoroughly brushed out, made a picture which did not fit in with New York’s conception of a finished statesman.13 How to Become a Better Listener Although he seemed awkward and uncultivated, Lincoln had a power­ful message about the moral evils of slavery. Fortunately, the audience at Cooper Union did not let his appearance stand in the way of his words. Similarly, you must be willing to set aside preconceived judgments based on a person’s looks or manner of speech. Gandhi was an unimpressive-looking man who often spoke dressed in a simple white cotton cloth. Renowned physicist Stephen Hawking was severely disabled and could speak only with the aid of a voice synthe- sizer. Yet imagine how much poorer the world would be if no one had listened to them. Even though it may tax your tolerance, patience, and concentration, don’t let negative feelings about a speaker’s appearance or delivery keep you from listening to the message. On the other hand, try not to be misled if the speaker has an unusually attractive appearance. It’s all too easy to assume that because someone is good-looking and has a polished delivery, he or she is speaking eloquently. Some of the most unscrupulous speakers in history have been handsome people with hypnotic delivery skills. Again, be sure you respond to the message, not to the package it comes in. SUSPEND JUDGMENT Unless we listen only to people who think exactly as we do, we are going to hear things with which we disagree. When this happens, our natural inclination is to argue mentally with the speaker or to dismiss everything she or he says. But neither response is fair, and in both cases we blot out any chance of learning or being persuaded. Does this mean you must agree with everything you hear? Not at all. It means you should hear people out before reaching a final judgment. Try to understand their point of view. Listen to their ideas, examine their evidence, assess their reasoning. Then make up your mind. The aim of active listening is to set aside “one’s own prej- udices, frames of reference, and desires so as to experience as far as possible the speaker’s world from the inside.”14 It has been said more than once that a closed mind is an empty mind. FOCUS YOUR LISTENING As we have seen, skilled listeners do not try to absorb a speaker’s every word. Rather, they focus on specific things in a speech. Here are three suggestions to help you focus your listening. Listen for Main Points Most speeches contain from two to four main points. Here, for example, are the main points of a speech by Glenn Gerstell, general counsel for the U.S. National Security Agency:15 1. Cyber vulnerability is one of the biggest threats to the United States. 2. T he nation is ill equipped to deal with this threat because responsibility for cyber protection is scattered across the federal government. 3. T he federal government should centralize responsibility for cyber protection by creating a new department of cyber security. These three main points are the heart of Gerstell’s message. As with any speech, they are the most important things to listen for. 54 CHAPTER 3 Listening Unless a speaker is terribly scatterbrained, you should be able to detect his or her main points with little difficulty. Often a speaker will give some idea at the outset of the main points to be discussed in the speech. For example, at the end of his intro- duction, Gerstell said he was going to explain “the current scope of the threat, how we are currently postured to address that threat, and . . . some thoughts on how our federal government should organize itself to address” the threat. As the speech pro- gressed, Gerstell moved from point to point with signposts such as “In short, we can all agree that glaring gaps remain in our nation’s cybersecurity posture” and “So let’s turn to what should be done.” After this, only the most inattentive of listeners could have missed his main points. Listen for Evidence Identifying a speaker’s main points, however, is not enough. You must also listen for supporting evidence. By themselves, Gerstell’s main points are only assertions. You may be inclined to believe them just because they come from an important national security official. Yet a careful listener will be concerned about evidence no matter who is speaking. Had you been listening to Gerstell’s speech, you would have heard him support his claims with a mass of verifiable evidence. Here is an excerpt: There are 23 victims of malicious cyber activity per second, according to a 2016 report from Norton. The Center for Strategic and International Studies recently estimated that such activity costs our national economy $140 billion each year. By comparison, the Institute for Economics and Peace, which publishes a yearly Global Terrorism Index, estimated that the global economic impact of terrorism was about $90 billion in 2015. . . . The Chair of the SEC last year said that the gravest threat to the Ameri- can financial system was cyber. The threat is so grave, in fact, that former CIA director and Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta described our nation’s cybersecurity weaknesses as amounting to a pre-9/11 moment. There are four basic questions to ask about a speaker’s evidence: 55 Is it accurate? Is it taken from objective sources? Is it relevant to the speaker’s claims? Is it sufficient to support the speaker’s point? In Gerstell’s case, the answer to each question is yes. His figures about cyber security threats are well established in research studies and can be verified by inde- pendent sources. The figures are clearly relevant to Gerstell’s claim that cyber vul- nerability is a serious threat to the United States, and they are sufficient to support that claim. If Gerstell’s evidence were inaccurate, biased, irrelevant, or insufficient, you should be wary of accepting his claim. We shall discuss these—and other—tests of evidence in detail in Chapters 8 and 17. For now, it’s enough to know that you should be on guard against unfounded assertions and sweeping generalizations. Keep an eye out for the speaker’s evidence and for its accuracy, objectivity, relevance, and sufficiency. How to Become a Better Listener key-word outline Listen for Technique An outline that briefly notes a speaker’s main points and We said earlier that you should not let a speaker’s delivery distract you from the mes- supporting evidence in rough sage, and this is true. However, if you want to become an effective speaker, you outline form. should study the methods other people use to speak effectively. Analyze the introduction: What methods does the speaker use to gain attention, to relate to the audience, to establish credibility and goodwill? Assess the organiza- tion of the speech: Is it clear and easy to follow? Can you pick out the speaker’s main points? Can you follow when the speaker moves from one point to another? Study the speaker’s language: Is it accurate, clear, vivid, appropriate? Does the speaker adapt well to the audience and occasion? Finally, diagnose the speaker’s delivery: Is it fluent, dynamic, convincing? Does it strengthen or weaken the impact of the speaker’s ideas? How well does the speaker use eye contact, gestures, and visual aids? As you listen, focus on the speaker’s strengths and weaknesses. If the speaker is not effective, try to determine why. If he or she is effective, try to pick out techniques you can use in your own speeches. If you listen in this way, you will be surprised by how much you can learn about successful speaking. DEVELOP NOTE-TAKING SKILLS Speech students are often amazed at how easily their instructor can pick out a speak- er’s main points, evidence, and techniques. Of course, the instructor knows what to listen for and has had plenty of practice. But the next time you get an opportunity, watch your instructor during a speech. Chances are she or he will be listening with a laptop or pen and paper. When note taking is done properly, it is a surefire way to improve your concentration and keep track of a speaker’s ideas. The key words here are when done properly. Unfortunately, many people don’t take notes effectively. Some try to take down everything a speaker says. They view the enterprise as a race that pits their note-taking speed against the speaker’s rate of speech. As the speaker starts to talk, the note taker starts to write or type. But soon the speaker is winning the race. In a desperate effort to keep up, the note taker tries to go faster and faster. But even this is not enough. The speaker pulls so far ahead that the note taker can never catch up.16 Some people go to the opposite extreme. They arrive armed with pen, laptop, and the best of intentions. They know they can’t write down everything, so they wait for the speaker to say something that grabs their attention. Every once in a while the speaker rewards them with a joke, a dramatic story, or a startling fact. Then the note taker records a few words and leans back to await the next fascinating tidbit. By the end of the lecture, the note taker has a set of tidbits—and little or no record of the speaker’s important ideas. As these examples illustrate, most inefficient note takers suffer from one or both of two problems: They don’t know what to listen for, and they don’t know how to record what they do listen for.17 The solution to the first problem is to focus on a speaker’s main points and evidence. But once you know what to listen for, you still need a sound method of note taking. Although there are a number of systems, most students find the key-word ­outline best for listening to classroom lectures and formal speeches. As its name suggests, this method briefly notes a speaker’s main points and supporting evidence in rough outline form. Suppose a speaker says: 56 CHAPTER 3 Listening Research confirms that listening carefully and taking effective notes are vital skills for success in college. They will also benefit you in countless situations throughout life. ©Syda Productions/Shutterstock The global shark population is in drastic decline. According to the jour- nal Marine Policy, 100 million sharks die from human activity every year— the equivalent of 11,000 sharks per hour. Today, almost 30 percent of all shark species are at risk of going extinct. A recent report on National Pub- lic Radio states that sharks “are among the most endangered animals in the world.” There are three main causes for the decline in shark populations. The first cause is illegal fishing; humans are killing sharks in unprecedented numbers. A second cause is the slow growth and reproduction rate of sharks; we’re wiping out sharks much faster than they can reproduce. The third cause is pollution and habitat destruction, which are disrupting the entire marine ­ecosystem. A key-word note taker would record something like this: Shark population in decline 100 million die each year 30 percent at risk of extinction Among most endangered in world Three major causes Illegal fishing Slow reproduction rate Pollution & habitat destruction Notice how brief the notes are. Yet they accurately summarize the speaker’s ideas. They are also very clear. By separating main points from subpoints and evidence, the outline format shows the relationships among the speaker’s ideas. How to Become a Better Listener 57 Perfecting this—or any other—system of note taking requires practice. But with a little effort you should see results soon. As you become a better note taker, you will become a better listener. There is also a good chance you will become a better stu- dent. Research confirms that students who take effective notes usually receive higher grades than those who do not.18 Summary Most people are poor listeners. Even when we think we are listening carefully, we usu- ally grasp only half of what we hear, and we retain even less. Improving your listening skills can be helpful in every part of your life, including speechmaking. The most important cause of poor listening is giving in to distractions and letting our thoughts wander. Sometimes, however, we listen too hard. We try to remember every word a speaker says, and we lose the main message by concentrating on details. In other situations, we may jump to conclusions and prejudge a speaker without hearing out the message. Finally, we often judge people by their appearance or speaking manner instead of listening to what they say. You can overcome these poor listening habits by taking several steps. First, take listening seriously and commit yourself to becoming a better listener. Second, work at being an active listener. Give your undivided attention to the speaker in a genuine effort to understand her or his ideas. Third, resist distractions. Make a conscious effort to keep your mind on what the speaker is saying. Fourth, try not to be diverted by appear- ance or delivery. Set aside preconceived judgments based on a person’s looks or man- ner of speech. Fifth, suspend judgment until you have heard the speaker’s entire message. Sixth, focus your listening by paying attention to main points, to evidence, and to the speaker’s techniques. Finally, develop your note-taking skills. When done prop- erly, note taking is an excellent way to improve your concentration and to keep track of a speaker’s ideas. Key Terms critical listening (47) spare “brain time” (48) hearing (44) active listening (51) listening (46) key-word outline (56) appreciative listening (47) empathic listening (47) comprehensive listening (47) Review Questions After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 1. What is the difference between hearing and listening? 2. How is listening connected with critical thinking? 58 CHAPTER 3 Listening 3. Why is it important to develop strong listening skills? 4. What are the four main causes of poor listening? 5. What are seven ways to become a better listener? Exercises for Critical Thinking 1. Which of the four causes of poor listening discussed in this chapter do you consider the most important? Choose a specific case of poor listening in which you were involved. Explain what went wrong. 2. Using the Listening Self-Evaluation Worksheet on page 52, undertake a candid evaluation of your major strengths and weaknesses as a listener. Explain what steps you need to take to become a better listener. 3. Watch the lead story this week on 60 Minutes, Dateline, or 20/20. Using the key- word outline method of note taking, record the main ideas of the story. 4. Choose a lecture in one of your other classes. Analyze what the lecturer does most effectively. Identify three things the lecturer could do better to help students keep track of the lecture. Exercises for Critical Thinking 59 4 Giving Your First Speech Preparing Your Speech Delivering Your Speech Sample Speeches with Commentary You may be surprised to learn that one of the first assignments in your class is to give a speech. You say to yourself, “What am I going to do? I have barely started this course, yet I’m supposed to stand up in front of everyone and give a speech! I’ve only read a few pages in the textbook, and I don’t know much about public speaking. Where do I begin?” If these are your thoughts, you aren’t alone. Most beginning speech stu- dents have a similar reaction. Fortunately, giving your first speech sounds a lot harder than it is. The purpose of this chapter is to help you get started on pre- paring and delivering your speech. Later chapters will expand on the subjects discussed here and will apply them to different kinds of speeches. ice breaker speech Preparing Your Speech A speech early in the term designed to get students Usually a brief, simple presentation, the first assignment is often called an ice speaking in front of the class breaker speech because it is designed to “break the ice” by getting students up in as soon as possible. front of the class as soon as possible. This is an important step because much of the anxiety associated with public speaking comes from lack of experience giving speeches. Once you have broken the ice by giving a speech, you will feel less anxious and will have taken the first step on the road to confidence. DEVELOPING THE SPEECH There are a number of possible assignments for the first speech. One is a speech of self-introduction that provides insight into the speaker’s background, personality, beliefs, or goals. In other cases, students are asked to introduce a classmate, rather than themselves. Some instructors require yet a different kind of speech. Make sure you understand exactly what your instructor requires. 60 ©McGraw-Hill Education/Mannic Media Focusing Your Topic No matter what kind of introductory speech you are assigned, be sure to focus your presentation sharply so it conforms to the assigned time limit. One of the most com- mon mistakes students make on their first speech is trying to cover too much. It would be impossible, for example, to tell your audience everything about your life in a two- or three-minute speech. A better approach would be to focus on one or two events that have helped define who you are—competing in the state track meet, tutoring disadvantaged children, getting your first job, and the like. This allows you to make a few well-developed points about a clearly defined subject. On the other hand, avoid the temptation to narrow the focus of your topic too much. Few listeners would be pleased to hear a two- or three-minute discussion of advanced trumpet-playing techniques. Such a speech would be too specialized for most classroom audiences. View the introduction from “Gotta Developing Your Topic Dance” in the online Media Library for this chapter (Video 4.1). Once you have a topic for your speech, be creative in developing it. Think of ways to structure the speech so it will be interesting and meaningful to your audience. Look, for example, at the sample speeches with commentary at the end of this chapter. The first speaker explains aspects of her life by referring to her grandmother’s courtyard, which she used to visit as a child. The second speaker uses the notion of fearlessness when introducing one of her classmates. In both cases, the speakers found a creative way to frame their information. Another possibility is to think of ways you can make your presentation mysteri- ous or suspenseful. Suppose you are telling the audience about meeting a celebrity, visiting a famous place, or participating in a newsworthy event. Rather than identify- ing the celebrity at the outset, you might save his or her name for the end of your speech. As your story unfolds, tantalize your classmates with clues about your celeb- rity’s gender, physical characteristics, special talents, and the like, but keep the name secret until the last moment. Audiences are also interested in dangerous situations, adventure, and drama. If your task is to introduce a fellow student, find out if she or he has ever been in dan- ger. Suppose your classmate was caught in a flood or spent a year in Africa with the Peace Corps. The details would make excellent material for a speech. If you think about it, every person has faced risk, done the unusual, or triumphed over hardship. Try to find ways to include such fascinating experiences in your speech. You can also make your speech interesting by using colorful, descriptive lan- guage. One speaker used this technique when introducing a fellow student, named Alexa, to the class. The speaker began by saying: The spotlight shines. The music blares. The crowd cheers. The colors, bright and vibrant, bleed together as Alexa and her partner sail around the dance floor. Her partner touches her hand and her waist, but only briefly. He then spins her away, and she glides across the floor in what seems like a single motion. Alexa has worked many weeks for this moment. Alexa, you see, is a championship ballroom dancer. The speaker could have said, “Alexa is a terrific ballroom dancer and finds it quite thrilling.” Instead, the speaker painted a word picture so listeners could ­visualize the dance floor, the brilliant colors of the costumes, and the excitement of 62 CHAPTER 4 Giving Your First Speech When working on your first speech, ask friends or family members for feedback and suggestions. In addition to helping you improve the speech, they can provide valuable personal support. ©asiseeit/Getty Images the competition as Alexa and her partner perform in perfect symmetry. Colorful and concrete illustrations like this are always more interesting than dull language and abstract generalizations. You might wonder whether you should use humor to make your first speech entertaining. Audiences love witty remarks, jokes, and funny situations, but like any- thing else, humor is effective only when done well. It should flow naturally out of the speech content rather than being contrived. If you are not normally a funny person, you are better off giving a sincere, enthusiastic speech and leaving out the jokes. In no case should you include humor that involves obscenity, embarrasses individuals, or negatively stereotypes groups of people. The best kind of humor gently pokes fun at ourselves or at universal human foibles. ORGANIZING THE SPEECH introduction The opening section of a Regardless of your topic, a speech usually has three main parts—an introduction, a speech. body, and a conclusion. In Chapter 10, we will discuss each of these parts in detail. Here we focus on what you need to know about them as you prepare your ­introductory speech. Introduction View the beginning of “The Secret” in the online Media Library for this Your first job in the introduction is to get the attention and interest of the audience. chapter (Video 4.2). You can do this by posing a question, telling a story, making a startling statement, or opening with a quotation. The purpose of all these methods is to create a dramatic, colorful opening that will make your audience want to hear more. For an example, look at the speech excerpt on Video 4.2. The speaker’s assign- ment was to present a narrative about a significant experience in his life. This is how he began: I never knew the secret until I took a year off from school, traveled half- way around the world, and lived for a year in Thailand. I was there to teach English, but the trip ended up being much more than a job. It was a voyage of discovery. I didn’t know exactly what I would find, but I came home with a truly valuable secret. Preparing Your Speech 63 After this introduction, the audience was eager to hear more about the speaker’s secret. In addition to gaining attention and interest, the introduction should orient your listeners toward the subject matter of your speech. In the longer speeches you will give later in the term, you will usually need to provide an explicit preview statement that identifies the main points to be discussed in the body of your speech. (For exam- ple, “Today I will inform you about the symptoms, causes, and treatment of sleep apnea.”) Because your introductory speech is so short, you may not need a detailed pre- view statement. But you still need to give your audience a clear sense of your topic and purpose. (Be sure to check with your instructor to see what kind of preview statement he or she prefers for the introductory speech.) body Body The main section of a speech. After getting the audience’s attention and revealing your topic, you are ready to move chronological order into the body of your speech. In some speeches, the body seems to organize itself. If A method of speech you are telling a story about a significant experience in your life, you will relate the organization in which the main events chronologically, in the order they occurred. points follow a time pattern. But not all speeches follow such a format. Suppose you have been asked to give topical order a presentation introducing a classmate. You could organize the most important A method of speech organization biographical facts about your subject in chronological order, but this might result in in which the main points divide a dull, superficial speech: “Maria was born in Miami in 2000, attended elementary the topic into logical and school from 2006 to 2012, and graduated from high school in 2018.” consistent subtopics. A better way of structuring your remarks might be to discuss three of the most main points important aspects of Maria’s life, such as hobbies, career goals, and family. This is The major points developed in called the topical method of organization, which subdivides the speech topic into its the body of a speech. natural, logical, or conventional parts. Although there are many other ways to organize a speech, your first presentation will probably use either chronological or topical order. Regardless of the method of organization you use, remember to limit the num- ber of main points in the body of your speech. In a two-minute presentation, you won’t have time to develop more than two or three main points. Once you have selected those points, make sure each one focuses on a single aspect of the topic. For example, if your first point concerns your classmate’s home- town, don’t introduce irrelevant information about her job or favorite music. Save this material for a separate point, or cut it. Try to make your main points stand out by introducing each with a transition statement. In a speech about a classmate, you might begin the first main point by saying: Ashley has been interested in drawing as long as she can remember. transition When you reach the second point, you might introduce it like this: A word or phrase that indicates when a speaker has finished Ashley’s passion for drawing helps explain her desire to major in one thought and is moving on ­architecture. to another. You have now let your audience know that the first main point is over and that you are starting the second one. The third main point might begin as follows: As much as Ashley hopes to have a career as an architect, she also wants to keep time for friends and family. Transitions such as these will help your audience keep track of your main points. 64 CHAPTER 4 Giving Your First Speech Your first speech provides a foundation for speeches you will give later. As you develop your skills of extemporaneous speaking, you will find yourself able to speak confidently and with strong eye contact in class and out. ©Vince Bucci/Invision for the Television Academy/AP Images Conclusion conclusion The final section of a speech. When you finish discussing your final point, you will be ready to move into your conclusion. You need to accomplish two tasks in this part of the speech: let the audi- ence know you are about to finish and reinforce your central idea. If possible, end on a dramatic, clever, or thought-provoking note. For example, when talking about his “secret” in the speech mentioned earlier, the student devoted the body of his presentation to explaining his experiences in Thailand and how they opened his eyes to the universality of human experience. Then, in his conclusion, he wrapped up by saying: I needed to be in an entirely different culture to learn the secret—that View the ending of “The Secret” in despite differences in ancestry, language, history, and religion, human the online Media Library for this beings are pretty much the same wherever they might be. I thought I was chapter (Video 4.3). going to meet people who were totally alien to me. Instead, I found that family, friendship, kindness, and community are as important on one side of the world as on the other. The final lines end the speech on a strong note and underscore why the speaker’s time in Thailand was so important. Delivering Your Speech Delivering Your Speech 65 Once you have selected a subject and organized the content into a clear structure, it is time to work on the delivery of your speech. Because this is your first speech of the term, no one expects you to give a perfectly polished presentation. Your aim is to do as well as possible while laying a foundation you can build upon in later speeches. With this is mind, we’ll look briefly at the extemporaneous method of speech delivery, the importance of rehearsing your speech, and some of the major factors to consider when speech day arrives. extemporaneous speech SPEAKING EXTEMPORANEOUSLY A carefully prepared and rehearsed speech that is You might be inclined, as are many beginning speakers, to write out your speech like presented from a brief set an essay and read it word for word to your listeners. The other extreme is to prepare of notes. very little for the speech—to wing it by trusting your wits and the inspiration of the moment. Neither approach is appropriate. View an excerpt from “Life Is a Journey” in the online Media Most experts recommend speaking extemporaneously, which combines the care- Library for this chapter (Video 4.4). ful preparation and structure of a manuscript presentation with the spontaneity and enthusiasm of an unrehearsed talk. Your aim in an extemporaneous speech is to plan your major points and supporting material without trying to memorize the precise language you will use on the day of the speech. The extemporaneous method requires you to know the content of your speech quite well. In fact, when you use this method properly, you become so familiar with the substance of your talk that you need only a few brief notes to remind you of the points you intend to cover. The notes should consist of key words or phrases, rather than complete sentences and paragraphs. This way, when you are in front of the audience, you will tell them what you know about the topic in your own words. Prepare your notes by writing or printing key terms and phrases on index cards or sheets of paper. Some instructors require students to use index cards because they are small and unobtrusive, they don’t rustle or flop over, and they can be held in one hand, which allows the speaker to gesture more easily. Other teachers recommend sheets of paper because you can get more information on them and because it is easier to print out computer files on paper. If you are unsure what your instructor prefers, ask well before your speech is due. Whether you use index cards or sheets of paper, your notes should be large enough to read clearly at arm’s length. Many experienced speakers double- or ­triple-space their notes because this makes them easier to see at a glance. Write or print on only one side of the index card or paper, and use the fewest notes you can manage and still present the speech fluently and confidently. You can see an example of extemporaneous delivery on Video 4.4. The speaker is giving a talk of self-introduction. As a returning student, he explains the twists and turns his life has taken during the eight years since he originally enrolled in college. He talks about working in retail, about his wife and daughter, and about what he hopes to do after graduation. As you view this excerpt, notice that even though the speaker’s points are well planned, he is not tied to his notes. He speaks personably to his classmates and makes strong eye contact with them. At first, it may seem very demanding to deliver a speech extemporaneously. In fact, though, you use the extemporaneous method in everyday conversation. Do you read from a manuscript when you tell your friends an amusing story? Of course not. You recall the essential details of your story and tell the tale to different friends, on different occasions, using somewhat different language each time. You feel relaxed and confident with your friends, so you just tell them what is on your mind in a con- versational tone. Try to do the same thing in your speech. REHEARSING THE SPEECH When you watch a truly effective extemporaneous speaker, the speech comes out so smoothly that it seems almost effortless. In fact, that smooth delivery is the result 66 CHAPTER 4 Giving Your First Speech of  a great deal of practice. As your speech course progresses, you will gain more  ­experience and will become more comfortable delivering your speeches extemporaneously. The first time you rehearse your introductory speech, however, you will probably struggle. Words may not come easily, and you may forget some things you planned to say. Don’t become discouraged. Keep going and complete the speech as well as you can. Concentrate on gaining control of the ideas rather than on trying to learn the speech word for word. You will improve every time you practice. For this approach to work, you must rehearse the speech aloud. Looking silently over your notes is not enough. Speaking the words aloud will help you master the content of your talk. Once you have a fairly good grasp of the speech, ask friends or family members to listen and to give constructive feedback. Don’t be shy about ask- ing. Most people love to give their opinion about something, and it’s crucial that you rehearse with a live audience before presenting the speech in class. As you practice, time your speech to make sure it is neither too long nor too short. Because of nerves, most people talk faster during their first speech than when they practice it. When you rehearse at home, make certain your speech runs slightly longer than the minimum time limit. That way, if your speaking rate increases when you get in front of your classmates, your speech won’t end up being too short. PRESENTING THE SPEECH Delivering your first speech can be a nerve-wracking experience. As your class pro- ceeds and you gain more experience, your confidence (and skill) will grow by leaps and bounds. We will take a detailed look at speech delivery in Chapter 13, but here are a few things to concentrate on in your first presentation. Starting Your Speech When it is your turn to speak, move to the front of the room and face the audience. Assume a relaxed but upright posture. Plant your feet a bit less than ­shoulder-width apart and allow your arms to hang loosely by your side. Arrange your notes before you start to speak. Then take a moment to look over your audience and to smile. This will help you establish rapport with your classmates from the start. Gestures gestures Motions of a speaker’s hands Once you are into the speech, feel free to use your hands to gesture, but don’t try to or arms during a speech. plan all your gestures ahead of time. If you don’t normally use your hands expressively during informal conversation, you shouldn’t feel compelled to gesture a lot during your speech. Whatever gestures you do use should flow naturally from your feelings. Above all, don’t let your gestures or bodily actions distract listeners from your message. Do your best to avoid nervous mannerisms such as twisting your hair, wringing your hands, shifting your weight from one foot to the other, rocking back and forth, or tapping your fingers on the lectern. No matter how nervous you feel, try to appear calm and relaxed. Eye Contact eye contact Direct visual contact with the During your talk, look at your classmates as often as you can. One of the major rea- eyes of another person. sons for speaking extemporaneously is to maintain eye contact with your audience. In your own experience, you know how much more impressive a speaker is when she or he looks at the audience while speaking. Delivering Your Speech 67 If you have practiced the extemporaneous method of delivery and prepared your notes properly, you should be able to maintain eye contact with your audience most of the time. Be sure to look to the left and right of the room, as well as to the center, and avoid the temptation to speak exclusively to one or two sympathetic individuals. If you are too nervous to look your classmates directly in the eye, try looking just to the side of each person, or just above his or her head. In this way, you will convey a sense of eye contact while easing your nerves. View excerpts from “Tap, Tap, Tap” Voice and “Third-Culture Kid” in the online Media Library for this chapter Try to use your voice as expressively as you would in normal conversation. Concen- (Video 4.5). trate on projecting to the back of the room and, despite your nerves, fight the temp- tation to race through your speech. If you make a conscious effort to speak up, slow down, and project clearly, you will be on the right track to an effective presentation. Look, for example, at Video 4.5, which presents excerpts from two ice breaker speeches. Neither speaker had taken a public speaking class before, yet both rose to the occasion by focusing on the basic elements of delivery we have just discussed. As you watch the video, notice how both convey a sense of poise and confidence, estab- lish strong eye contact with their classmates, and use the extemporaneous method of delivery. Work on doing the same in your first speech. Dealing with Nerves As we saw in Chapter 1, it’s normal to be nervous before delivering a speech of any kind. By applying the tips presented in that chapter for managing stage fright, you can stand up for your speech primed for success. If you have butterflies in your stomach while you wait to go to the lectern, sit quietly in your chair and take several slow, deep breaths. You can also help reduce your tension by tightening and relaxing your leg muscles, or by squeezing your hands together and then releasing them. Keep in mind that while you may be anxious about giving your speech, usually your nervousness will not be visible to your audience. All the topics discussed in this chapter are developed in much more detail in the rest of this book. For now, keep your introductory assignment in perspective. Remember that neither your audience nor your instructor expects perfection. You are not a pro- fessional speaker, and this is the first speech of the class. Do your best on the assign- ment and have fun with it. Plan what you want to say, organize the material clearly, practice thoroughly, and use the extemporaneous method of delivery. You may be surprised by how much you enjoy giving your first speech. View “The Courtyard” and Sample Speeches with Commentary “Fearless” in the online Media Library for this chapter The following presentations were prepared by students in beginning speech classes at (Videos 4.6 and 4.7). the University of Wisconsin. The first is a speech of self-introduction; the second is a speech introducing a classmate. As you read the speeches, notice how clearly they are organized and how creatively they are developed. You can view the delivery of both speeches on Videos 4.6 and 4.7. 68 CHAPTER 4 Giving Your First Speech The Courtyard <<< <<< COMMENTARY SPEECH The introduction captures attention and reveals the When I look at this photo, I think of lemons, peaches, and topic. In addition to a vivid verbal description of guava. I think of lush green trees and bright red roses. I think her grandmother’s courtyard, the speaker uses of good food and joyous celebrations—birthdays, weddings, PowerPoint to show a photo of it. holidays. This ­courtyard is where my grandmother lived and taught me about my Mexican heritage. After previewing the two main points to be covered in the body, the speaker clicks off the photograph Even though I was born in the U.S. and have lived here all my so it will not deflect attention as the speech life, the courtyard is very meaningful to me. It has helped me proceeds. understand the importance of family and appreciate the cul- tures that have shaped my life. The speaker presents her first main point, which The courtyard symbolizes the importance of family in my places the courtyard geographically and provides life. It’s located in a small town in Mexico where both my details about its role as a center of family life. parents were born and raised. I first visited the courtyard Colorful, descriptive language helps listeners when I was five years old, and I will never forget the meals or visualize the courtyard and understand why it is so my grandmother’s love. Over the years, she taught me to meaningful to the speaker. dance to mariachi music in the courtyard and about the roses and other flowers. And she told me the story of when my dad The speaker moves to her second main point, in asked for my mother’s hand in marriage in that very which she uses the courtyard to symbolize her courtyard. sometimes conflicting feelings of cultural identity. Here, as elsewhere, she communicates expressively In addition to family, the courtyard symbolizes the different and with strong eye contact. cultures that have shaped my life. Whenever we went to Mex- ico, my parents lit up because it felt like home to them. But The conclusion ties everything together. Showing not to me. Sometimes I felt out of place, especially because I the same photo as in the introduction provides a was born in the U.S. and my Spanish is not perfect. That led sense of unity, as does a reference to the speaker’s me to wonder who I am and how I should identify. With grandmother and the times they shared in the friends here, I sometimes feel too Mexican, but in Mexico, I courtyard. definitely feel American. I don’t think I ever got over these different feelings, but I’ve learned to accept them. Poignant and heartfelt, the final lines provide a memorable ending. So even though I’m now a student here at Wisconsin, when I look at this photo, I can practically smell the roses and hear the joy of family celebrations. And I miss my grandmother. She died two years ago, but I can still see her face and hear her voice—and I remember all the things she taught me on the tiled floor by the fountain. I proudly call the United States home, but when I look at this photo, I will always think of my grandmother and my home away from home. Thank you. Sample Speeches with Commentary 69 Fearless <<< <<< COMMENTARY SPEECH The speaker begins by gaining attention and relating Fear. Monsters. The unknown. We all know what it’s like to to the audience. She then identifies the classmate be scared. Our classmate Bella certainly does. Ever since she she is introducing and connects her with the can remember, she has had night terrors—dreams so vivid opening words of the speech. and real that she will wake herself up in a panic. Once she even fell out of bed and rammed her chin into a dresser. Here the speaker states her central idea and previews the main points she will cover in the body. That’s Bella at night. But during the day, she’s just the oppo- site—she’s fearless. She’s fearless in athletics, she’s fearless in The main points are organized in topical order. traveling, and she’s fearless in seizing new opportunities. The first deals with Bella’s fearlessness as an athlete and is developed with clear, interesting Bella is fearless when it comes to athletics. In high school, she supporting materials. played on her varsity soccer team for three years. That’s impres- sive considering that her team won state championships in her The speaker provides a transition from the first junior and senior years. On the soccer field Bella is a mid- main point to the second, which deals with Bella’s fielder, which means she has incredible endurance. Outside the fearlessness in traveling. As you can see from the soccer field she uses this endurance to run marathons. online video, the speaker’s delivery is engaging and personable. Athletics give Bella bravery, bravery that she uses in other parts of her life—other parts like traveling. When she was The third main point focuses on Bella’s seven years old, she traveled to Italy for a family reunion and fearlessness in seizing new opportunities. This loved every second of it. Last year, she went to New York and paragraph talks about Bella’s experiences in the Dominican Republic, where she participated in alterna- childhood and high school. tive spring break. This year she’s going on alternative spring break again, this time in New Orleans. Wherever she travels, This paragraph completes main point three by Bella looks to expand her horizons. bringing Bella’s experiences up to date now that she is in college. She also looks to expand her horizons by seizing whatever opportunities—large or small—come her way. For example, In concluding, the speaker summarizes her main Bella grew up in Minnesota and often went to the State Fair, points, reinforces the central idea, and provides a where she tried unusual foods like deep-fried butter. In her sense of unity by referring to ideas from the junior year of high school she tried being a vegetarian, but introduction. that failed miserably. Here at Wisconsin she wants to be a business major, even though she has no idea exactly what she wants to do with her life. Soon she plans on joining a sorority and starting a flag football team. W­ hatever it may be, Bella will be open-minded and seize what life has to offer. An amazing athlete, a seasoned traveler, an open-minded, adventurous person—that’s Bella. She’s fearless. Except when it comes to the occasional night terror. 70 CHAPTER 4 Giving Your First Speech Summary The purpose of this chapter is to help you get ready for your ice breaker speech. Later chapters will look more closely at all the aspects of speech preparation and delivery discussed here. Once you know the exact assignment for your ice breaker speech, you can start working out your ideas. Focus on a limited number of main points and develop them creatively. Your speech will have three parts—introduction, body, and conclusion. Use transition statements to help the audience keep track of your points as the speech progresses. Your teacher will probably ask you to deliver the speech extemporaneously. This means that the speech is carefully prepared in advance, but the exact language is chosen at the moment of delivery. To be successful, you will need to rehearse the speech ­multiple times to make sure you have full command of it. When speech day comes, you will almost surely have butterflies in your stomach. Remember that nervousness is normal. Concentrate on communicating with your audi- ence, rather than on worrying about your nerves. Try to appear calm and relaxed on the outside, no matter how you feel on the inside. Establish eye contact with the audience, use your voice expressively, and make sure your gestures and mannerisms do not dis- tract from your message. Key Terms transition (64) conclusion (65) ice breaker speech (60) extemporaneous speech (66) introduction (63) gestures (67) body (64) eye contact (67) chronological order (64) topical order (64) main points (64) Review Questions After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 1. What two major steps are discussed in this chapter for developing your introductory speech? 2. When organizing your introductory speech, you should divide it into what three sections? 3. What method of delivery does this chapter recommend for your introductory speech? 4. What steps should you take when rehearsing your first speech? 5. What five elements of speech delivery are discussed in this chapter with regard to presenting your first speech? Review Questions 71 Exercises for Critical Thinking 1. Examine the two sample speeches included in this chapter. Choose one, and answer the following questions about it. a. How do the opening paragraphs gain the attention of the audience, introduce the subject of the speech, and preview the main points to be discussed in the body? b. How clearly is the body of the speech organized? What does the speaker do to help listeners follow the progression of ideas? c. How does the speaker conclude? Does the conclusion reinforce the central theme of the speech? 2. Are there occasions outside the classroom on which you might give a speech of self- introduction? Identify such an occasion and explain how you might apply the principles of introductory speeches discussed in this chapter. 72 CHAPTER 4 Giving Your First Speech This page intentionally left blank 5 Selecting a Topic and a Purpose Choosing a Topic Determining the General Purpose Determining the Specific Purpose Phrasing the Central Idea A s you read through this book, you will find examples of hundreds of speeches that were delivered in classrooms, in the political arena, in community and business situations. Here is a very small sample of the topics they cover: artificial intelligence Native American art cryptocurrency oceanography dog breeds paragliding eSports Ramadan first responders supervolcanoes GMOs tropical fish hurricanes volleyball identity theft weddings jazz x-rays kayaking Yom Kippur Martin Luther King zoos Undoubtedly you noticed that the list runs from A to Z. This array of topics wasn’t planned. It happened naturally in the course of presenting many different kinds of speeches. The list is given here to show you that there are literally endless possibili- ties for speech topics—from A to Z. 74

Is to restate or summarize an author's ideas in one's own words?

When you restate the words and ideas that someone has written on the Internet?

What responsible speech goal asks the speaker to avoid using language that degrades individuals and humanity?

When you paraphrase someone in a speech you have an ethical responsibility to give that person credit for his or her ideas True False?