What is the term for very powerful negative labels that change a persons identity norms stigmas statuses folkways?

Learn key MCAT concepts about social psychology, plus practice questions and answers

Part 1: Introduction to social psychology

Humans are innately social creatures. Human interactions with others form a network of social relationships that allow a society to function. These interactions and behaviors are shaped by several frameworks in social psychology that stem from both biological bases and cultural norms. Understanding these frameworks helps us to better understand how and why people act in the ways they do.

These concepts may be particularly difficult to study due to the sheer number of concepts and definitions that must be memorized. This guide will help to break down the main terms and concepts needed for the MCAT and will provide real-life examples similar to those that will appear on exam day. Several important terms will be bolded and defined throughout the guide. However, feel free to create your own terms and definitions/examples as you progress through the guide so that they serve you best!

Along with knowing the terms and concepts, you will also need to know how to apply them to real-life situations that the MCAT will present. At the end of this guide, there is an MCAT-style passage and standalone questions that will test your knowledge on the covered topics.

Let’s begin!

Part 2: Socialization by individuals

As an individual, a large part of one’s needs (either biological, physical, emotional, etc.) is fulfilled by one’s interactions with others. By understanding the motivations behind the need to socialize, along with the various methods of socialization that are used, one can gain a better understanding of how and why individuals behave the way they do.

Socialization

Socialization is a dynamic and ongoing process by which individuals grow to become a part of their society by internalizing that society’s values and norms. Some of these norms exist among all cultures and societies, while others are social constructs, or norms that are artificially created by that society and propagate. It is in this manner of socialization that individuals of a society are encouraged to follow natural order and become a part of their society.

Social construct theory is an extreme view of society and socialization that considers all meanings to be created through communications between individuals in the society. Through these communications, both weak social constructs and strong social constructs can be created. Weak social constructs are immutable facts about the universe that cannot be altered through human-imposed meaning (such as the existence of gravity and other fundamental forces), while strong social constructs are given meaning through the perspectives and conditions of a certain society. 

Frontstage & backstage behavior

A large part of one’s identity is shaped by one’s behavior, or presentation of self. By managing one’s self-presentation, people are able to influence how others perceive them. People imagine themselves as playing roles when interacting with others. When in public and interacting with others, frontstage behavior takes place, in which individuals engage in self-monitored behavior that they believe others expect to observe. Once alone or with people who are close to them, they switch to backstage behavior, in which they no longer have to heed the rules of society and can act as they please. 

Foot-in-the-door & door-in-the-face techniques

These are two opposite yet fascinating tricks of persuasion. One can find them often used in traditional sales techniques and advertisements. The foot-in-the-door technique is a persuasion technique that gets people to agree to large requests by starting out with a small request at first. Individuals are more likely to accept these small requests, which then increases the probability of agreeing to a later, large request. 

Think of your favorite bulk foods store—they get their foot in the door with customers by offering free samples of food, which in return serves as a way to persuade customers to buy that food in bulk (even if not originally on their shopping list!). Asking others to sign petitions is another common example of this technique—agreeing to the small task of signing a name on a piece of paper may increase the probability of one attending a gathering or contributing money.

The door-in-the-face technique works in the opposite way, where a large and often unreasonable request is made at first. While this request may be immediately turned down, a second, more reasonable request is made immediately after. The second request is more likely to be agreed to than when this request is made in isolation. 

Consider asking a friend to help you move apartments. While your friend may initially refuse to help you when you ask them to commit a weekend to move boxes up and downstairs, they may agree to a later request for help in moving a single sofa down a flight of stairs.

Deindividuation

Power lies in numbers. According to the concept of deindividuation, individuals act differently in a group compared to when they are alone. When in a group, this individual is no longer viewed as a unique person, but rather as a part of the group. This results in more anonymity, less accountability for their actions, and a lower possibility of being associated with or blamed for their individual actions. People in groups are freer to act on impulse and without consequences because their actions are attributed to the group and not to them as an individual. 

This effect can be greatly augmented in mobs. Individuals who are part of a mob feel that they can escape blame for their actions because they are masked by the identity of the group. Individual protestors, on the other hand, cannot be anonymous because they are immediately linked to their actions.

Ascribed, attained, & master status

Status is a socially defined role or position within a society. An individual can simultaneously hold many statuses. There are also many different ways that an individual holds a status. Ascribed status is a status that is automatically assigned by society, regardless of one’s efforts. This can include things like race, sex, and age. Caste systems are societies in which an ascribed status determines a profession and other social stratification factors. Attained status, on the other hand, is earned through an individual’s conscious efforts. This can include things like one’s profession, the number of education degrees one has, one’s marital status, and so forth. Finally, master status defines one’s dominant role or place in society and can be either ascribed or attained. It is a status that lies at the core of one’s social identity and influences a person’s behaviors and attitudes when in society. For example, your master status in a few years may be one of “doctor.”

Social reproduction is a term coined to describe the perpetuation of a social class or status over multiple generations. In many societies, it can be very difficult to attain a status different from that of one’s parents or hope to achieve some other ascribed status.

Role strain, role conflict, & role exit

An individual’s role in a society is the result of status; for instance, a woman in medical school fulfills the role of a student. Role strain describes the difficulty in meeting the high demands of a particular role that one fills. For example, a student may experience role strain due to several exams, projects, and homework assignments that are causing stress. Importantly, there is no conflict between multiple roles: simply the increased demands of a single role.

Role conflict, on the other hand, describes the competing demands of multiple roles that one fills. For example, Dr. Lee may experience role conflict between his profession as a doctor requiring many late hours on call and his role as a father who must spend time with his children. 

Finally, role exit describes the transition from exiting one role and entering another role. For example, a doctor who retires after a long and fruitful career may experience role exit as they transition from the role of a busy contributing member of society to a retiree. This role exit may occur naturally, as in the case of retirement, or due to unresolvable role conflict.

Stereotype, prejudice, & discrimination

These three terms are used commonly and often interchangeably in everyday discussions. However, be aware that there are key differences between each of these terms. 

Stereotypes are often extremely simplified generalizations about groups of people based on various characteristics, such as gender, age, or race. Importantly, these stereotypes can be either positive or negative—but are used to overgeneralize the characteristics of a large group of people. Stereotypes can also be considered a form of heuristic, or mental shortcut. Thus, stereotypes may be used to quickly understand and process information as one encounters new people and tries to learn about the world around them.

Unfortunately, using stereotypes runs the risk of making incorrect assumptions about individuals based solely on the group that they belong to. They can also lead to stigma, or collective negative beliefs about a group of people that become adopted by a society.

Prejudices are a collection of harmful beliefs, thoughts, and attitudes about a certain group of people. Prejudices exist within an individual’s perception of a group of people and do not manifest in positive or negative actions toward the group. Often prejudice is not derived from personal experience but rather from pre-existing notions that can be learned from societal influences. 

Finally, discrimination describes actions against a group of people. This is in contrast to prejudice. Just like stereotypes and prejudice, discrimination is also based on treating groups of people differently based on characteristics such as race, ethnicity, age, and so forth. However, one can be discriminatory while being non-prejudiced. For example, an employer might unknowingly practice sexism in their workplace by not giving women employees the same opportunities for promotion that men receive.

Discrimination can also occur on multiple different levels. Individual discrimination occurs as the result of one person discriminating against another. Institutional discrimination occurs as an employer, institution, or group of people collectively engaging in discriminative practices.

Stereotype threat and self-fulfilling prophecy

Growing up, Anna was the best in her class at math. Math was her favorite subject, and she excelled in it. However, as she grew older, she noticed fewer and fewer girls were in her advanced math classes with her. One of her male classmates told her that “women are bad at math.” This affected Anna greatly, and her performance in the class greatly declined.

This situation describes an instance of stereotype threat. Stereotype threat occurs when an individual feels worried about behaving in a way that affirms negative stereotypes about the group that they belong to. Here, Anna is experiencing a lot of stress to do well in her math class. She feels that if she doesn’t do well, she’ll end up proving the negative stereotype about “women being bad at math.” This added stress ultimately poorly impacts her performance. When the individual becomes anxious about their performance due to existing negative stereotypes, their ability to perform to their full potential is hindered.

Stereotype threat often results in a self-fulfilling prophecy. A self-fulfilling prophecy is a unique phenomenon in which a prediction or expectation comes true simply because the person believes it will and they (consciously or subconsciously) align their actions to make it come true. In Anna’s case, she was so concerned about performing poorly in her math class that the result came true. Similarly, if one wholeheartedly believes that they will succeed, their attitudes and thoughts will shape their behavior accordingly. 

Part 3: Group-based interactions

People assemble into groups based on various characteristics, including things they can control—such as goals, interests, and beliefs—and other factors that cannot be controlled—such as age, race, and sex. Through groups, individuals can find kinship and community within a society. Let’s take a closer look at the dynamics that exist within and between groups of people. 

In-group, out-group, & reference group

An in-group is a group of people that one considers to be a part of. For instance, you may consider your in-group to be other “pre-med” or “college” students. An out-group, on the other hand, is a group that one does not identify with. In the world of sports, any fan of your rival team may be an out-group! 

Finally, a reference group is a group of people that one uses to compare oneself with. Often, this is a group that one looks up to or aspires to become a part of, such as physicians. At other times, the group may not be a group that one aspires to be a part of, for instance, famous celebrities and musicians.

Interactions with in-groups and reference groups lead to social control. Social control theory states that these relationships collectively encourage individuals to conform to societal norms and values.

Primary, secondary, & tertiary reference group

Reference groups can be further divided into subcategories of primary, secondary, and tertiary reference groups. Primary reference groups include one’s primary contacts, or the set of people that one meets and interacts with each day. This could include family, close friends, or roommates. These individuals have a strong effect on shaping one’s beliefs, values, and attitudes. 

Secondary reference groups include more distant contacts, or people that one doesn’t interact with as frequently. These connections are often impersonal, short-term, and goal-oriented. Classmates and colleagues may be considered to be in secondary reference groups, as interactions with this group are based around an academic or professional goal.

Finally, tertiary reference groups include individuals with which there is not necessarily any interpersonal connection. Interactions with these groups are often transient and transactional.

Bystander effect and social loafing

Kitty Genovese was a young woman who was brutally murdered in her apartment complex. She cried loudly for help, hoping that someone would hear her and call the police. Someone did hear her, 38 people in fact. Yet, not one person called the police or came to her rescue. Why is that?

This case study provides an infamous example of the bystander effect. The bystander effect states that individuals are less likely to offer help to someone or take responsibility for something when there are others present. This may be due to an automatic assumption that others in the group will step up to provide a solution to the problem. Alternatively, it may be due to the assumption that one’s own actions are not enough or are hindering. The collective inertia of the group leads to inaction.

By taking leadership and distributing duties among bystanders present, one can ensure that the bystander effect does not occur during a crisis and that tasks are completed in an effective and thorough manner.

A related effect is that of social loafing, which states that people are less likely to put in effort towards a goal when working in a group as compared to when working alone. This is one of the prime reasons why group work can sometimes be less productive than individual work. Social loafing occurs because there is less accountability on any one person, and often because there is not enough clarity in the division of work and reward.

Obedience

Obedience is compliance with commands and instructions given by authority figures. Stanley Milgram conducted several important experiments to study any factors related to authority that affect obedience. He asked volunteers of the study to teach the material to a “student” (who was an actor and confederate in the study). Every time the student made a mistake, the volunteer teacher was instructed by an authority figure (often Milgram himself) to administer electric shocks to the student. With each subsequent mistake, the teacher was asked to increase the voltage of the shock. A certain threshold voltage was indicated at which the student would be harmed. (In reality, the shock was fake and the student pretended to be in pain—otherwise, this experiment would never pass muster in an ethics committee!) The teacher, or experimental subject, remained under the assumption that the punishment he was administering was real.

As the voltage increased, the student’s “pain” grew and the teacher became more and more agitated. And yet, the teacher continued to administer increasingly stronger shocks due to the command given by the authority figure, to the point of surpassing the threshold voltage. Why did the volunteer teacher not disobey the authority figure when it was so clear that the high voltage shock was harming the student?

Milgram came to the conclusion that the teachers did so because they were pressured by the authority figure. He found that the teachers were more likely to obey when the authority figure was wearing a uniform (or an indicator of his authority) or when the student was in another room and his pain could not be observed.

This study was incredibly important in revealing the extent of power that certain people can hold over others, to the point that people will listen to authority over their own conscience. 

Groupthink vs. group polarization

We make decisions differently in a group as compared to when we are alone. Peer pressure occurs when individuals are encouraged to change their behavior as the result of behavior among a group of others. Groupthink occurs when a group of people convene and form the same collective opinions. While individuals inside the group may originally have unique opinions, members receive pressure from others to achieve a harmonious result and change their minds. Group polarization, on the other hand, describes how a group shifts toward a more extreme stance after a collective discussion, as compared to the individual’s initial stance. Both are a result of the desire to be accepted in the group and achieve solidarity, and both often result in poor decision-making.

These phenomena can be avoided by appointing a devil’s advocate to offer opposing or different viewpoints so that the entire group isn’t herded toward a poor decision or extreme stance.

Dyads vs. triads

A dyad is a group of two people who interact with each other, while a triad is a group of three people.

Figure: Triads are more stable than dyads.

Often dyads are more intense and involve personal relationships, but they also tend to be more unstable and temporary. Adding an additional person to a dyad can change the dynamic of the group entirely. Triads tend to be more stable than dyads, since the third person can often step in as a mediator when two members have a dispute. And if the situation arises, a person can leave a triad and a group still remains, while the same cannot apply for a dyad.

Halo effect

First impressions are everything. The halo effect states that when one observes a positive characteristic about a new individual, a positive impression of that individual is formed. This conditions the observer to form a positive feeling about the person as a whole and can often lead them to mistakenly assume the presence of positive merits. 

This is why appearances become important during interviews. If one looks nice, the interviewer forms a positive first impression about them, and they are more likely to overlook shortcomings in their interview later on. On the contrary, if one’s appearance is disheveled and untidy, the interviewer’s negative impression of them will impact how they see the rest of the interview (often termed the reverse halo effect or horns effect).

Mere exposure effect

The mere exposure effect states that people tend to develop a preference or liking for things due to a gained familiarity with them. Studies have shown that this effect happens with a variety of things, such as words, colors, paintings, faces, sounds, and even Chinese characters! This probably also explains why we tend to be attracted towards people who share similar backgrounds and interests as us, or even to people who share similar facial features with us.

Types of support

Support can come in many forms. There are four crucial types of support to be familiar with. 

Emotional support includes empathy, trust, love, acceptance, intimacy, and encouragement. Providing this form of support lets the individual know that they are valued.

Instrumental support includes food, shelter, financial assistance, material goods, and services. Providing this form of support allows the individual to meet their logistical needs through direct and concrete needs. 

Informational support includes advice, guidance, suggestions, wisdom, and information. Providing this form of support allows someone to problem-solve for themselves.

Companionship support includes providing a sense of belonging and esteem. This enables the individual to take part in shared social activities and fulfill the need for socialization.

Formal organizations & bureaucracy

Formal organizations are social systems that work towards a shared goal through the means of organized rules, structure, and actions that ensure the success of that goal. The need for immaculate order and organization in such systems is fulfilled by a bureaucracy, or a hierarchical system in which each person has a defined set of responsibilities, duties, and authorities to which they must report. This division of labor ensures that tasks are divided among workers and that work is performed in an efficient and competent manner. 

Bureaucracies are the key to efficiency for many large organizations, ranging from fast-food franchises to multispecialty hospital systems. Unfortunately, bureaucracies can lead to the depersonalization of labor, unfulfilling working conditions, and a loss of morale.

Behavior in other animals 

Non-human animals also rely on verbal and nonverbal communication to facilitate social interactions. These signals often include chemical signaling using pheromones, which are odorous stimuli that can be smelled and detected by other members of the same species.

Animals also exhibit social behaviors. Courtship displays may lead to sexual attraction and mating with other members of the same species. Aggressive displays are used to intimidate and compete with other members of the same species. Attachment and altruism are behaviors used to improve the inclusive fitness of the entire species: although altruistic behaviors may not benefit the individual performing the behaviors, they help to ensure the survival of the species as a whole. For more information on this, be sure to refer to our guide on genetics and evolution.

Part 4: Cultural patterns

Culture brings people together but can also keep people apart. A society is a group of people, and culture is the set of rules, beliefs, values, and knowledge that guide people in a society. Culture often includes social objects that are passed down from generation to generation, ranging from abstract ideas like beliefs and value systems to more concrete languages and customs. 

Recognizing and acknowledging different cultures is so important in how one interacts with others, especially as doctors interact with patients who come from a variety of cultural backgrounds. Doctors must be competent and knowledgeable about various cultures and at the same time, show humility in navigating cultures that are not their own.

Norms, mores, taboos, & folkways

Norms are rules, either implicit or explicit, that define acceptable behavior. These rules can either be formal/written (such as laws) or informal/commonly understood (such as greetings). Norms are enforced by sanctions by the community, with varying amounts of repercussions enforced if norms are not obeyed.

Mores are types of norms that govern moral behavior. Mores tend to be strict guidelines that exist for the greater benefit of the society. For example, some societies hold a more that premarital sex is immoral and not allowed. Individuals who violate mores may be socially punished by a community.

Folkways are less important norms that govern daily behavior. Folkways are enforced by social approval. For example, saying thank you after receiving a service is considered a social folkway. There are no repercussions for violating a folkway. 

Taboos are actions or behaviors that are strictly prohibited in a society due to their morally reprehensible nature. These taboos often include things that are disgusting and revolting to even think about. For example, bestiality is considered to be taboo by most cultures. Individuals who violated a taboo are often shunned or cast away from the community.

Deviance & anomie

Deviance describes the violation of social norms. Deviance of norms leads to sanctions that are placed on the offender by the community. These sanctions can either be formal (e.g., legal consequences) or informal (e.g., stigmatization). There are several theories that explain why an individual might resort to deviance. 

Differential association theory states that the more exposure one has to deviance, the more deviant one becomes. 

Labeling theory states that if a society labels you as deviant, you are more likely to act in deviant ways. This is also an example of a self-fulfilling prophecy. 

Structural strain states that if one cannot reach their goals with the means available, one resorts to deviance to gain the resources that are needed. 

Anomie, on the other hand, describes a general and society-wide reduction of norms and moral order. This often occurs due to decreased social cohesion, less interpersonal interaction within a society, and increased individuality.

Conformity, internalization, & identification

Conformity is generally defined as the tendency to act, think, or believe similarly to others in a group. Conformity is an incredibly powerful social phenomenon, one that is pervasive in many aspects of society. Solomon Asch performed an experiment to demonstrate how powerful conformity can be.

Figure: A setup of Solomon Asch’s experiment.

A volunteer was shown the picture above and asked to state which line (A, B, or C) matched the first line. In most cases, there was an obvious answer—in this scenario, line C. However, when the individual is placed in a group of 9 others, the individual may change their announced opinion. If all others in the group state that the answer was B, the volunteer may change their initial opinion and state that the answer is B to conform with the rest of the group. This conformity is strongly observed even in cases where the general consensus of the group is incorrect.

Identification refers to the desire to be like all other members of a group. Consider an individual who newly encounters a group of people who love cars. The newcomer will most likely desire to identify with that group, either to fit in or due to fear of sticking out. This desire may arise even if the newcomer does not enjoy cars. 

Internalization, on the other hand, refers to the act of adopting others’ values or beliefs as one’s own because they have an appreciation for them. When this newcomer is with a group of car enthusiasts and they begin to internalize this love for cars, they begin to engage with them in car-related discussions and go on trips to car shows with them because they enjoy it. They will think or do these things regardless of whether or not it adds social value. 

Collective behavior

Collective behavior describes behavior demonstrated by groups of people that is largely spontaneous, rapidly changing, and unrepresentative of societal norms. This kind of behavior is often fleeting, can produce very ambiguous norms, and may be destructive or dangerous. There are several major forms of collective behavior, including fads, mass hysteria, and riots.

Fads are fleeting behaviors that gain popularity incredibly fast and lose popularity just as fast. Fads typically do not provide obvious value or change norms and are adopted very quickly by large groups of people. In recent years, social media and video streaming platforms have enabled the rapid spreading of fads in the form of viral trends.

Mass hysteria occurs when a large group of people simultaneously experience a sense of anxiety and delusional thinking. This delusional thinking may be the result of receiving information out of context or in the form of a threat. In recent years, the availability of information through news outlets has increased the availability of information that may induce anxiety-driven behavior.

Riots occur when large groups of people engage in deviant and often destructive or dangerous behavior, including vandalism and looting. The people involved in riots collectively engage in such behavior to demonstrate defiance and anger about a certain important issue. Riots generally occur as a result of a society’s frustration; rioting and acts of extreme destruction may be seen as the only way to make a group’s opinions heard or to bring about change.

Advantages of altruism

Humans are innately social creatures. There is value in being social and in being a part of groups. Theorists suggest that natural selection and evolution favor organisms that demonstrate socialization and altruistic behavior, or selfless reciprocal cooperation. 

The inclusive fitness theory suggests that altruism among related organisms ensures the passing of related genes to be passed onto the following generations. For example, organisms may forego having offspring to better contribute their resources to ensuring the success of the offspring of others. In this way, it is ensured that at least some of the offspring will continue to reproduce—an evolutionary advantage to the species, even if not to the individual. 

This propagation of shared genes explains much of why many organisms demonstrate social behavior and altruism. Groups ensure survival, and survival allows genes to be passed down through generations.

Acknowledgements: Snigdha Nandipati

Part 5: Passage-based questions & answers

Group pressure often results in individuals performing harmful reactions towards others, despite no such tendencies existing in other situations. The psychologist Stanley Milgram investigated this phenomenon. In one experiment described by Milgram, participants (the “Teacher”) were influenced to administer electric shocks of greater and increasing voltage to a stranger (the “Learner”) at the behest of two confederates who demanded this under the pretense of a learning experiment. This is an example of action conformity since the behavior of the subject would cause pain to another individual.

In years since Milgram’s experiment, researchers have explored other manipulated factors that might overcome this. One particular study was designed to explore whether taking the embodied perspective of a woman subject to harassment by a group of men would later diminish the number of shocks they would administer in the Milgram paradigm compared to other conditions.

In this study, male participants (n = 60) were in a virtual reality (VR) scenario of sexual harassment (SH) of a lone woman by a group of males in a bar. Participants were either only embodied as one of the males (n = 20), or also as the woman (n = 20). A control group (n = 20) only experienced the empty bar without the SH condition. After each exposure to the verbal harassment scene participants were administered a verbal questionnaire about body ownership as the woman in the VR scenario (-3 totally disagree, 3 totally agree). The questionnaire items and corresponding variable names are shown in Table 1. 

In a follow-up experiment, participants acted as the Teacher in a VR version of Milgram’s obedience experiment. In this modified scenario, participants were encouraged to give shocks to a female Learner by a group of 3 virtual males. The results of the study are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Responses to questionnaires after modified Milgram experiment.

CREATOR AND ATTRIBUTION PARTY:NEYRET, S., NAVARRO, X., BEACCO, A. ET AL. AN EMBODIED PERSPECTIVE AS A VICTIM OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT IN VIRTUAL REALITY REDUCES ACTION CONFORMITY IN A LATER MILGRAM OBEDIENCE SCENARIO. SCI REP 10, 6207 (2020). THE ARTICLE’S FULL TEXT IS AVAILABLE HERE: HTTPS://WWW.NATURE.COM/ARTICLES/S41598-020-62932-W. THE ARTICLE IS NOT COPYRIGHTED BY SHEMMASSIAN ACADEMIC CONSULTING. DISCLAIMER: SHEMMASSIAN ACADEMIC CONSULTING DOES NOT OWN THE PASSAGE PRESENTED HERE. CREATIVE COMMON LICENSE: HTTP://CREATIVECOMMONS.ORG/LICENSES/BY/4.0/. CHANGES WERE MADE TO THE ORIGINAL ARTICLE TO CREATE AN MCAT-STYLE PASSAGE.

Question 1: In Stanley Milgram’s original obedience experiment, which factors would likely cause the subject to stop delivering shocks to the student in the study?

A) The student is in a different room as the subject

B) The student is in the same room as the subject

C) The student is younger than the subject

D) The authority person giving directions to the subject is dressed in a uniform

Question 2: Which of the following best describes the type of study described in the passage?

A) Cohort study

B) Survey study

C) Experimental study

D) Observational study

Question 3: According to the passage, group pressures often result in individuals performing abnormal behaviors toward others. This is best described as a result of:

A) Mere exposure effect

B) Social loafing

C) Halo effect

D) Deindividuation

Question 4: Which of the following conclusions is best supported by the results shown in Figure 1?

A) Individuals who felt the most embodied in the woman’s role in the VR scenario delivered fewer shocks.

B) Individuals who felt the least embodied in the woman’s role in the VR scenario delivered fewer shocks.

C) Individuals who felt the most embodied in the woman’s role in the VR scenario delivered more shocks.

D) Individuals who felt the most embodied in the woman’s role in the VR scenario delivered zero shocks.

Question 5: A male participant in this study is likely to experience which of the following?

A) Mass hysteria; new experiences that were gained in the VR simulation may provoke spontaneous, anxiety-driven behavior

B) Stereotype threat; by fearing disapproval from authority figures, the participants modified their behavior that ultimately resulted in poor approval ratings

C) Role exit; after experiencing role strain during the VR simulation, participants modified their role as a Teacher during the obedience experiment

D) Social loafing; fewer shocks may be administered during the obedience experiment due to an assumption that the 3 authority figures would ultimately administer additional shocks

Answer key for passage-based questions

1. Answer choice B is correct. In Milgram’s experiment, the student’s presence in the same room would likely cause the subject to stop delivering shocks. This may be because the subject is able to see the student’s expression of pain and is more likely to overcome the obedience phenomenon (choice B is correct). When the student is in a different room, the subject cannot see the student’s expression of pain and therefore is likely to continue delivering shocks (choice A is incorrect). The student’s age in relation to the subject has no clear correlation with the deliverance of shocks (choice C is incorrect). Finally, the authority’s use of uniform increases feelings of obedience in the subject and therefore is likely to continue the deliverance of shocks (choice D is incorrect). 

2. Answer choice C is correct. Because the researchers are placing subjects in a controlled condition to produce an independent variable (questionnaire score) and measure a dependent variable (severity of shocks), this is an experimental study (choice C is correct). A cohort study involves multiple people who share a common feature (choice A is incorrect). A survey study involves the distribution of a survey and analysis of the received results. It is typically observational or retrospective, with no manipulation of variables involved (choice B is incorrect). An observational study involves observation of the subject(s) without any intervention (choice D is incorrect).

3. Answer choice D is correct. Deindividuation is the phenomenon in which individuals act differently when in a group compared to when they are alone due to anonymity and group pressure (choice D is correct). The mere exposure effect explains that we tend to develop a preference or liking for things because of our familiarity with them (choice A is incorrect). The halo effect states that when we notice something or someone that looks nice, we are conditioned to form a positive feeling about the item/person as a whole, which leads us to mistakenly assume its merits (choice B is incorrect). Finally, social loafing describes that people are less likely to put in effort towards a goal when working in a group compared to when working alone (choice C is incorrect). 

4. Answer choice A is correct. The individuals who felt most embodied in the woman’s body in the VR scenario were the ones who scored highly on the questionnaire (score>3). According to the data presented in Figure 1, there is a strong correlation between high questionnaire scores and a low number of shocks. Hence, choices B, C, and D are incorrect. 

5. Answer choice C is correct. Role exit can occur as the result of role conflict resolution. Male participants in this study may encounter role conflict after observing themselves as a female participant during the VR scenario (choice C is correct). Mass hysteria refers to widespread, anxiety-driven activity that may occur across a society (choice A is incorrect). There is no evidence that these participants were experiencing stereotype threat or were fearful of a particular stereotype becoming true (choice B is incorrect). Social loafing occurs in groups when there is no clear delineation between individual roles, and responsibility can be diffused (choice D is incorrect).

Part 6: Standalone questions and answers

Question 1: Dr. Sinclair has to work nights at the hospital, but she also feels a responsibility to stay at home and look after her sick daughter. Which of these terms best describes her predicament?

A) Role conflict

B) Role strain

C) Role exit

D) Role confrontation

Question 2: Janet changes her initially correct answer on the oral pop quiz to match that of her 9 other classmates. Which of the following factors would NOT have prevented her from changing her initial answer?

A) Janet is the first to say her answer instead of the last

B) An authority figure has a different answer than hers

C) One other classmate shares the same answer as her

D) Janet knows that she is an expert in the subject compared to her peers

Question 3: Which of the following techniques or attitudes may be used to prevent groupthink?

A) Electing a powerful leader to command the group

B) Desire for a unanimous decision

C) Appointing a devil’s advocate

D) Acknowledgement that others in the group are more knowledgeable

Question 4: A volunteer needs to get one more signature on her petition to save the bees. To do so, she goes to her neighbor and asks if he could volunteer his time to remove a colony of bees at a nearby park. What persuasive technique is at play?

A) Deindividuation

B) Foot-in-the-door

C) Heuristic

D) Door-in-the-face

Question 5: A shop owner allows people of all races to enter her store but remains suspicious of her Asian customers. Which of the following terms best describes this situation?

A) Prejudice

B) Discrimination

C) Stereotype

D) All of the above

Answer key for standalone questions

1. Answer choice A is correct. Role conflict describes the situation in which multiple roles that an individual holds have competing demands (choice A is correct). Role strain describes the situation in which a single role has competing or burdensome demands (choice B is incorrect). Role exit describes when a role and its responsibilities are left, often for another role (choice C is incorrect). Role confrontation is not a term used in psychology (choice D is incorrect).

2. Answer choice B is correct. The question asks for which scenario would have NOT prevented Janet from changing her initial answer or which scenario would encourage conformity. Group members tend to conform to the majority view or to the view that is held by individuals in positions of power (choice B is correct). If Janet is the first to share her answer, she would not have the chance to hear others’ answers beforehand, and therefore would have nothing to conform to (choice A is incorrect). Conformity is reduced when there is even one other person who supports your view (choice C is incorrect). Janet’s higher level of expertise in the subject would make her less likely to conform to her peers (choice D is incorrect). 

3. Answer choice C is correct. Appointing a devil’s advocate ensures that other viewpoints are brought into consideration and therefore helps to prevent the process of groupthink (choice C is correct). Having a powerful leader intimidates members of the group into agreeing with the leader, thus encouraging groupthink (choice A is incorrect). The desire for a unanimous decision drives groupthink (choice B is incorrect). Feeling less knowledgeable than fellow group members is more likely to encourage agreement with them, thus leading to a consensus more quickly (choice D is incorrect).

4. Answer choice D is correct. Doris is using the door-in-the-face technique, in which the individual starts out by making a large request in order to negotiate towards a more reasonable request (choice D is correct). Deindividuation is a phenomenon in which individuals act differently when in a group compared to when they are alone due to the anonymity that the group setting provides (choice A is incorrect). The foot-in-the-door technique is the opposite technique to what the volunteer has used. This technique involves starting with a small request as a way to work up towards a larger desired request (choice B is incorrect). Finally, a heuristic is a shortcut or cognitive tool that we use in order to process large amounts of information in an easy step (choice D is incorrect).

5. Answer choice A is correct. The shop owner holds prejudice, or a collection of beliefs and attitudes, against her Asian customers. These attitudes are internal and do not necessarily result in action or behavior (choice A is correct). Discrimination describes an action or series of actions against a certain group of people (choice B is wrong). Stereotypes are overgeneralizations about groups of people based on various characteristics (choice C is wrong). In this situation, the shop owner holds a suspicious attitude about Asian people as a whole but does not discriminate or commit an action against Asian people.

What is the term for very powerful negative labels that change a persons identity?

What is the term for very powerful negative labels that change a person's identity norms stigmas statuses folkways?

What are the 4 types of deviance?

What is the term for behavior that violates the norms or expectations of a group or a society?