Show Recommended textbook solutions Human Resource Management15th EditionJohn David Jackson, Patricia Meglich, Robert Mathis, Sean Valentine 249 solutions
Clinical Reasoning Cases in Nursing7th EditionJulie S Snyder, Mariann M Harding 2,512 solutions Biology1st EditionKenneth R. Miller, Levine 2,591 solutions Hole's Human Anatomy and Physiology13th EditionDavid N. Shier, Jackie L. Butler, Ricki Lewis 1,402 solutions Acquisition In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. Ex: To Pavlov's dogs, the originally neutral tone becomes a CS after signaling an important biological event-the arrival of food (US)
Associative learning Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). Ex: The sea slug associates the squirt with an impending shock; the seal associates slapping and barking with a herring treat Behavioral modification Designed to change a particular undesirable negative behavior. By using a system of positive or negative consequences, an individual learns the correct set of responses for any given stimulus. Ex: a teacher rewards their students for getting a good grade with stickers Behaviorism The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research
psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). Biofeedback Involves using visual or auditory feedback to gain control over involuntary bodily functions Ex: blood flow, blood pressure, and heart rate. Bobo doll experiment Nursery school students observed an adult play aggressively (yelling & hitting) with an inflatable clown (Bobo); when children were later allowed to play with the Bobo, those children who witness the Bobo doll performed the same aggressive actions and improvised new ways of playing aggressively Classical conditioning A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events Ex: we learn that a flash of lightning signals an impending crack of thunder; when lightning flashes nearby, we start to brace ourselves Cognitive learning The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language Ex: Chimpanzees sometimes learn behaviors merely by watching others perform them. If one animal sees another solve a puzzle and gain a food reward, the observer may perform the trick more quickly. Cognitive map A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it. Conditioned response (CR) In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) Ex: The dog's salvation to the tone and food Conditioned stimulus (CS) In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response. Ex: The food shown to the dog Continuous reinforcement Reinforcing
the desired response every time it occurs Ex: If a normally dependable candy machine fails to deliver a chocolate bar twice in a row, we stop putting money into it (although a week later we may exhibit spontaneous recovery by trying again. Delayed punishment The observed decrease in effectiveness of punishers not delivered immediately Delayed reinforcement A reward that does not immediately follow an action Ex: If a student is only given a treat on completing his homework after a certain while, this might not make him continue completing his homework regularly as the result isn't immediate Emotional learning Recognizing emotions and learning how to manage feelings Extinction The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. Ex: Pavlov's dogs salivating to tone began to diminish after several hours Extrinsic motivation A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment Ex: Are you feeling pressured to finish reading before a deadline? Eager for the credits that will count toward graduation? Higher-order conditioning A procedure in which the CS of one experiment acts as the UCS of another, for the purpose of conditioning an NS Ex: When a random object is introduced when the bell is rung, the dogs continued to salivate. The dog salivates when it hears the bell and sees the random object. The neutral stimulus has been modified to make the dog salivate. Insight learning The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known Ex: A dog is in a room with a small gate to keep him from leaving. He pushes a box over to the gate in order to stand on it and jump over the gate Intrinsic motivation A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake Ex: Are you finding material interesting? If there were no grade at stake, might you be curious enough to want to learn the material for its own sake? Latent learning learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Ex: Food being placed in the maze, for rats to find Law of effect Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Ex: If you study for a test and get a good grade on it
Learned helplessness The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Ex: A smoker may repeatedly try and fail to quit. Learning The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors Ex: Doing something continuous, such as eating healthy and exercising everyday, will become a habit Little Albert study _______ learns to make associations between stimuli in the environment and reflexes; Albert shows little fear with dog, monkey, or burning newspaper, neutral stimuli since he hasn't learned to fear anything; Shows Albert a white rat while making loud clanging noise, which upsets Albert, who eventually associates white rat with being upset; Proves fear is learned. Modeling The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior; Kind of vicarious learning Ex: children imitating the adult behavior on the inflated Bobo doll. Negative reinforcement Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A _______ is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.) (undesired stimulus) Ex: Taking painkillers to end pain; Fasten seat belt to end loud beeping Neutral stimulus (NS) In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning Ex: The tone Observational learning Learning by observing others; also called social learning Ex: A child who sees his sister burn her finger on a hot stove learns not to touch it. Operant chamber In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Operant conditioning A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher Ex: A child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors. Overjustification effect The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task. Partial (intermittent) reinforcement Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in the slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement Ex: Imagine a pigeon has learned to peck a key to obtain food. IF you gradually phase out the food delivery until it occurs only rarely, in no predictable pattern, the pigeon may peck 150,000 times without a reward Positive reinforcement Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A ______ is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Ex: Billy's whining caused him to get his dad's attention; paying the person who paints your house; Pet a dog that comes when you call it Primary reinforcers vs. secondary reinforcers Primary reinforcers are innately satisfying/desirable Prosocial behavior Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior Ex: Many businesses effectively use behavior modeling to help new employees learn communication, sales, and customer service skills; Trainees gain these skills faster when they are observing those skills. Punishment: positive punishment vs. negative punishment Positive Punishment: Administer an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior
Reinforcement In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Ex: For people, it may be praise, attention, or a paycheck. For animals, food or water works Reinforcement schedules A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced Fixed-interval In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed Ex: Every so often: reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time, such as Tuesday discount prices Fixed-ratio In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses Ex: Every so many: reinforcement after every nth behavior, such as buy 10 coffees, get one free, or pay per product unit produced Variable-interval In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals Ex: Unpredictably often: reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time, as in checking for a Facebook response Variable-ratio In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses Ex: After an unpredictable number: reinforcement after a random number of behaviors, as when playing slot machines or fly casting Shaping (aka method of successive approximations) An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior Ex: A kindergarten teacher wants her students to raise their hand while sitting in their seats and for them to wait to be called upon before talking. First, she praises students when they raise their hand regardless of whether they are sitting in their seats. After they've mastered that behavior, she only praises students when they raise their hand while sitting in their seats. Finally, she only praises students when they are engaging in the ultimate desired behavior of raising their hand while sitting in their seats and waiting to talk until they're called upon. Social Learning A theory that suggests we learn social behaviors by watching, imitating others, and modeling Ex: A child who plays violent video games will likely influence their peers to play as well, which then encourages the child to play more often. Spontaneous recovery The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response Ex: Pavlov's dogs salivating to tone began to diminish after several hours, then reappear Stimulus discrimination In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus Ex: A combat veteran learns to distinguish between the sound of gunfire and the backfire from a car Stiumulus generalization The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar response Ex: Children that are taught to fear moving cars, also fear moving trucks and motorcycles Taste aversion Occurs when an animal associates the taste of a certain food with symptoms caused by a toxic, spoiled, or poisonous substance Unconditioned response (UCR) In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. Ex: A dog drooling to the smell of food Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response. Ex: The food presented to the dog Vicarious learning Classical Conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person Ex: A baby starts crying after watching another baby cry Albert Bandura (observational learning, Bobo doll experiment, and modeling) Bobo doll experiment. This doll was used to demonstrate the impact of observing an adult model performing aggressive behavior of children. The children imitated the adult model's behavior. B.F. Skinner (operant chamber aka Skinner Box) A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning. Edward Thorndike (operant conditioning and the Law of Effect) Law of effect: The idea that responses that produced desirable results would be learned, or "stamped" into the organism Edward Tolman (latent learning and cognitive map) Experiments in learning involved teaching three groups of rats the same maze, one at the time. Group 1- rewarded each time at the end of maze (learned maze quickly Group 2- in maze everyday; only rewarded on 10th day (demonstrated learning of maze almost immediately after receiving reward Group 3- never rewarded (did not learn maze well Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning) Showed the existence of the unconditioned response by presenting a dog with a bowl of food and the measuring its salivary secretions. The assistant that always brought the dog the food also made it salivate. John Garcia (classically conditioned taste aversions) Ran contrary to the established findings by showing that taste aversion could occur after just a single trial John Watson and Rosalie Rayner (Little Albert study) Founder of behaviorism-believed that behavior could be explained in terms of learning "Little Albert" experiment paired a baby with a white rat. While the baby was not initially scared of the rat, Watson paired the rat with a loud, scary noise (UCS). The UCS caused the baby to fear the rat. Fear of the noise (UCR) caused fear or phobia of the rat (CR) Robert Rescorla (contingency theory) Cognitive processes in classical conditioning and concluded that the strength of the UCS-CS association is determined by the extent to which the UCS is unexpected or surprising. The greater the surprise of the UCS, the more effort an organism puts into trying to understand its occurrence so it can predict future occurrences. Identify the contributions of key researchers in the psychology of learning. Albert Bandura - observational learning; bobo doll & social learning theory John Garcia - rats associated sweet water with sickness (taste aversion) Ivan Pavlov - classical conditioning; studied saliva B. F. Skinner - elaborated Thorndike's Law of Effect; developed behavioral technology Edward Thorndike - created Law of Effect Edward Tolman - rat maze; cognitive maps (mental representation of environment) John B. Watson - Little Albert; aversive conditioning; emotional learning; fear through classical conditioning; phobia Interpret graphs that exhibit the results of learning experiments. In thorndikes puzzle box with cats, cats solved the problem quicker and quicker with more trials, signifying the value of practice and repetition Describe the essential characteristics of insight learning, latent learning, and social learning. Wolfgang Kohler's study of insight learning: chimpanzee's use insight to reach the banana Latent - learning becomes obvious only once reinforcement is given for demonstrating it (from this stems cognitive maps) Social - illustrated that children learn by watching others who display aggression
(modeling) Apply learning principles to explain emotional learning, taste aversion, superstitious behavior, Emotional learning- constructing memories of certain events. Having fond memories of hot dogs since remembering 4th of July picnics with family Taste aversion- learned avoidance of food. Getting food sick after eating oysters, so never eating oysters again. Superstitious behavior- behavior repeated because it seems to build reinforcement, but actually unnecessary. Doing a push-up before shooting a free throw Learned helplessness- Condition experienced after series of failures leading person to believe he/she has no control. Doing poorly on tests despite studying, so stops studying altogether since it wouldn't matter anyway. Provide examples of how biological constraints create learning predispositions. Classical conditioning principles are constrained by biological predispositions, so that learning some associations is easier than learning others. Learning is adaptive: each species learns behaviors that aid its survival. Biological constraints also place limits on operant conditioning. Training that attempts to override biological constraints will probably not endure because animals will revert to predisposed patterns Describe basic classical conditioning phenomena. In classical conditioning, the acquisition is associating an NS with the US so that the NS begins triggering the CR. Acquisition occurs most readily when the NS is presented just before (ideally, about a half-second before) the US, preparing the organism for the upcoming event. This finding supports the view that classical conditioning is biologically adaptive. Extinction is diminished responding when the CS no longer signals the impending US. Spontaneous recovery is the appearance of a formerly extinguished response, following a rest period. Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a CS. Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli. Through higher-order conditioning, a new NS can become a new CS
Distinguish general differences between principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. In classical conditioning the principles focus on involuntary and automatic behaviors. In operant conditioning the principles involve the strengthening and weakening of voluntary behaviors. Also, it focuses around reinforcement and punishment after a behavior. In observational learning by watching, imitating, and modeling others Predict the effects of operant conditioning. Punishment administers an undesirable consequence (such as spanking) or withdraws something desirable (such as taking away a favorite toy) in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior (a child's disobedience). Negative reinforcement (taking an aspirin) removes an aversive stimulus (a headache). This desired consequence (freedom from pain) increases the likelihood that the behavior (taking aspirin to end pain) will be repeated. Punishment can have undesirable side effects, such as suppressing rather than changing unwanted behaviors; teaching aggression; creating fear; encouraging discrimination (so that the undesirable behavior appears when the punisher is not present); & fostering depression & feelings of helplessness Predict how practice, schedules of
reinforcement, other aspects of reinforcement, and Fixed-ratio - Every so many: reinforcement after every nth behavior, such as but 10 coffees, get 1 free, or pay per product unit produced. Fixed-interval - Every so often: reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time, such as Tuesday discount prices. Variable-ratio - After an unpredictable number: reinforcement after a random number of behaviors, as when playing slot machines or fly casting. Variable-interval - Unpredictably often: reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time, as in checking for a facebook response. Suggest how behavior modification, biofeedback, coping strategies, and self-control can be used Behavior Modification can lead to behavior problems because you are changing how you behave in order to please something therefore, the ability to revert back to yourself and how you are supposed to behave seem to blur from time to time. Biofeedback is a process in which a process whereby electronic monitoring of a normally automatic bodily function is used to train someone to acquire voluntary control of that function. This can help behavioral problems by enhancing an impaired function within your brains such as temperature control and PTSD. It can also badly affect behavioral problems because individuals with low motivation are not willing to take an active role in any treatment. Coping Strategies are ways to alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods and it can address behavioral problems because it helps alleviate the stressful or the "bothersome" activities to boost a more positive behavior and lifestyle. Self-Control is the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term reward and it can help behavioral problems because it teaches the individual to contain the malicious behavior in order to create better and positive habits and behaviors. What is the major difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning?The main difference between classical and operant conditioning is that classical conditioning associates involuntary behavior with a stimulus while operant conditioning associates voluntary action with a consequence. Classical and operant conditioning are two central concepts in behavioral psychology.
Which of the following is an important difference between classical and operant conditioning quizlet?Which of the following is an important difference between classical and operant conditioning? In classical conditioning, the behavior is involuntary, whereas in operant conditioning it is voluntary.
What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning Brainly?Answer. Answer: Both classical conditioning and operant conditioning are processes that lead to learning. Classical conditioning pairs two stimuli, while operant conditioning pairs behavior and response. ...
|
What is a major difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning? quizlet
zusammenhängende Posts
Urheberrechte © © 2024 ketiadaan Inc.
