Emotional contagion. Current directions in psychological science, 2(3), 96-100.
• Original theoretical introduction of Emotional Contagion.
• Posits emotional contagion as a non conscious and automatic process
• They provide initial definition of emotional contagion: "the tendency to automatically mimic and synchronize expressions, vocalizations, postures, and movements with those of another person's and,
consequently, to converge emotionally," (p. 96).
• They posit the following as possible mechanisms for emotional contagion:
o Mimicry
Mimicry tends to be almost instantaneous - this is not a conscious process - we don't do this effectively consciously.
Motor mimicry is so subtle that it often produces no observable changes in facial expression
Facial expression mimicry
Vocal mimicry
Posture mimicry
o Feedback
Feedback from facial muscles and the changes
associated with mimicry
Still need research on how important feedback is to the emotional experience
Some research (e.g. Laird & Bresler, 1992) has shown that creating facial expressions influences emotions (i.e. frowning makes you angry/sad, smiling makes you happy)
Vocal feedback can also influence emotional experience
Posture/movement feedback can also influence emotions
o Contagion
As a consequence of the mimicry and then the feedback, people "catch" the
emotion of the people they're with
New Perspectives on Emotional Contagion: A Review of Classic and Recent Research on Facial Mimicry and Contagion. Interpersona.
• Review of research supporting attention, facial mimicry, and feedback in sparking primitive emotional contagion
• Defines contagion by conceptualizing it as a "multiply determined family of cognitive, psycho- physiological, behavioral, and social phenomena"
• Also define it as a
multi-level phenomenon - stimuli arise from one individual, act upon (i.e., be perceived and interpreted by) one or more other individuals, and yield corresponding or corresponding/complementary emotions in these individuals.
• Distinguish that this is primitive emotional contagion - a process which is automatic, unintentional, uncontrollable, and largely inaccessible to conversant awareness.
• They provide the same definition as is provided in Hatfield et al., 1994.
• They maintain
the same three propositions/mechanisms: people mimic each other, then feedback influences their own emotions, then they thereby catch the other's original emotion.
o However, they add a fourth proposition: In attempting to divine another's emotions, people rely on cognitive assessments as well as feedback from the emotions they have caught.
o This adds a more conscious aspect to emotional contagion - "Conscious analytic skills can help one figure out what makes other people "tick". But if
people pay careful attention to the emotions they themselves experience in the company of others, they may well gain an extra edge into "feeling themselves" into others' emotional states"
o However, they add a fourth proposition: In attempting to divine another's emotions, people rely on cognitive assessments as well as feedback from the emotions they have caught.
• Also support that emotional contagion can be cross-channel: you can mimic two people/groups of people at once (think of a
comedy club, mimic one person's smile and the audiences laughter simultaneously)
• Demonstrate evidence that gender, goal of interaction, power differences, culture, relationship, etc. all influence mimicry.
• Also updates on research into neuroscience, supporting that people's mirror neurons assist in the mimicking of others' emotions (Rizzolatti, 2005). Mirror neurons and theory of mind (TOM).
The emotional link: Leadership and the role of implicit
and explicit emotional contagion processes across multiple organizational levels. The Leadership Quarterly.
• Reviews emotional contagion research as it relates to multiple levels of analysis with- in an organization and discusses the extent to which this process can be managed by leaders.
• Argues that the role emotional contagion plays in organizations can be more clearly understood by properly delineating different organizational levels in which these processes are contained
• Also
argues that we must distinguish between implicit and explicit emotional contagion mechanisms (these different mechanisms are as proposed by Hatfield, 1994; 2014 - the implicit ones are the first three propositions from 1994, and the explicit one is from 2014 [the conscious assessment] HOWEVER TEE ALSO ARGUES THAT FEEDBACK CAN BE CONSCIOUSLY ASSESSED AND CONTROLLED).
• Explains Ashkanasy (2003) multilevel theory of emotions in the workplace - emotions belong to one of five levels - within
person, between person, interpersonal interactions, group, and organization wide.
o Shows that emotional contagion happens in both top-down and bottom-up directions through these organizational levels
• Suggests that it is vital to differentiate between these levels, as there are differences in what can be managed by leaders- the bottom up approach can lead to more management of contagion from leaders
• Claims that the mechanism of feedback can be regulated by people, more so than
mimicry, which is automatic.
• Proposition 1a. Implicit emotional contagion processes are based on largely tacit, automatic processes. These processes form the neurological basis for the automatic sharing of affect in leaders and followers.
• Proposition 1b. Explicit emotional contagion processes are based largely on conscious, deliberate processes. These processes form the neurological basis for the purposeful transfer of affect in leaders and followers.
• Proposition 1c. The basis
for influence is reliant on tacit neural underpinnings. Leaders who understand these processes are better able to (1) understand and be aware of implicit emotional contagion processes influencing leadership outcomes and (2) manage the explicit emotional contagion processes influencing leadership outcomes.
• Proposition 2a. Between-persons differences influence the extent to which leaders are susceptible to implicit emotional contagion processes. These individual-level differences include
general susceptibility to emotional contagion, empathy, as well as the extraver- sion and neuroticism personality traits.
• Proposition 2b. Between-persons differences influence the extent to which leaders are likely to use explicit emotional contagion processes as a basis for their influence and leadership style. These individual-level differences include gender, extraversion, agreeable- ness and expressivity.
• Proposition 3a. Emotional contagion underlies the process by which leaders
engage in emotional labor. In addition to regulating their own emotions (i.e. managing the effects of implicit emotional contagion), effective leaders also regulate expressions of emotion to followers (i.e. managing the effects of explicit emotional contagion) in order to enhance authenticity, credibility and leadership effectiveness.
• Proposition3b. Managementofexplicitemotionalcontagionprocessesisessentialforleadershipeffectiveness.Emotionalcontagion processes from leaders to followers
influence a wide range of team and leadership outcomes, and is particularly relevant in under- standing the influence of charismatic and transformational leaders.
• Proposition 3c. Implicit and explicit emotional contagion processes from followers to leaders influence a wide-range of team and leadership outcomes, and is particularly relevant in understanding the role of followership in the leadership process.
• Proposition4a.
Theenactmentofgroup-levelaffectcanbeattributedtoimplicitemotionalcontagionprocesses.Thisleadstoshared emotions between group members that subsequently influences group member interactions and performance.
• Proposition 4b. Group-level affect enhances solidarity between group members, shapes group identity and motivates collective action. Collective action is motivated by explicit expressions of emotion towards threats or out-group members, and is a function of leaders and followers shaping
this symbolic aspect of the group through explicit emotional contagion processes.
• Proposition 4c. At the group level of analysis, situational, contextual and group-relevant factors moderate the extent to which leaders and followers influence one another through implicit and explicit emotional contagion processes.
• Proposition 5a. Implicit and explicit emotional contagion processes underlie the spread of emotion over wide social networks. The communication and sharing of emotion across
multiple levels in organizations, shapes, and in turn, is shaped by, organizational culture and climate.
• Proposition 5b. The management of organization-wide culture relies partly on leaders' management of organization-level emotions through implicit and explicit emotional contagion processes. Leaders' management and regulation of emotional contagion processes underlies the shape, form, and outcome of organization-wide culture, climate and change outcomes.
Job
Burnout. Annual Review of Psychology.
• Define burnout as "a prolonged response to chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors on the job, and is defined by the three dimensions of exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy"
• Outcomes of burnout: job performance (in turn job satisfaction and commitment to organization), health (both physical and psychological).
• Job characteristics associated with burnout: experienced workload and time pressure, role conflict, role ambiguity, job
demands, absence of job resources, lack of feedback
• Differences in burnout across occupations: teaching highest levels of exhaustion, medicine higher levels of inefficacy, high levels of cynicism in social services and mental health
• Individual characteristics: younger employees experience more burnout, no sex differences, unmarried people more prone to burnout, higher education levels lead to more burnout, highly neurotic people