Module 21:-Thinking-Manipulation of mental representations of information (representation couldtake the form of a word, visual image, a sound, or data in any other sensory modalitystored in memory)- thinking transforms a particular representation of information into newand different forms, letting u answer questions, solve problems, and reach goals- Although an exact sense of what specially occurs when we think is unclear,we begin by considering our use of mental images and concepts, thebuildingblocks of though- Mental images-Representations in the mind that resemble the object or event beingrepresented (not just visual but also the ability to “hear” a tune)- Mental images are a major part of thinking- Mental images have a lot of the same components of the objects theyrepresent (takes the mind longer to scan the mental images of larger objectsthan of smaller ones)/ we’re also able to manipulate/ rotate mental imagesand objects- athletes use mental imagery to improve skills (leads to better performancein sports)-Concepts-Mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people- allow us to organize complex phenomena into simpler/ more usable/cognitive categories- concepts help us classifynewly encountered objects based on ourpast experience- concepts influence or behavior (we would assume it’s okay to pet an animalif it’s a dog, but not a wolf)- i.e. concepts of an equilateral triangle are 3 sides, equal length- if it hastheseconcepts it is an equilateral triangle, if not then it’s not-Prototypes-Typical, highly representative examples of a concept that corresponds toour mental image or best example of a concept(when people think of birds, they usuallythink of a robin. Therefore a robin is the prototype of the concept “bird”- concepts/ prototypes allow us to draw suitable conclusions through thecognitive process of reasoning-Algorithm-A rule that, if applied properly, guarantees a solution to a problem- we can use them even if we can’t understand why they work (i.e. you knowcertain math equations, but you don’t know the mathematics behind theformula)- Whenalgorithmsaren’t available, we can useheuristics(thinking strategies that maylead us to a solution to the problem or decision, but unlike algorithms, it may sometimeslead to errors)- they increase likelihood to success in a certain situation, but they cannotensure it unlike algorithmsDifferent types of heuristics….1)Representativeness heuristic-When we judge people by the degree towhich they represent a certain category or group of people (i.e. teenagersconstantly rob your store, so you become more suspicious whenever ateenager walks in)
Understanding Psychology, 6/e
Thought and Language
| algorithm | A rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem |
| babble | Speechlike but meaningless sounds made by children from the ages of around 3 months through 1 year |
| cognitive psychology | The branch of psychology that focuses on the study of cognition |
| concepts | Categorizations of objects, events, or people that share common properties |
| convergent thinking | he ability to produce responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic |
| creativity | The combining of responses or ideas in novel ways |
| divergent thinking | The ability to generate unusual, yet appropriate, responses to problems or questions |
| functional fixedness | The tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use |
| grammar | The system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed |
| heuristic | A cognitive shortcut that might lead to a solution |
| insight | A sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another |
| language | The communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules |
| language acquisition device | A hypothesized neural system of the brain for understanding language |
| learning-theory approach | The theory suggesting that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning |
| means-end analysis | Repeated testing for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists |
| mental images | Representations in the mind that resemble the object or event being represented |
| mental set | The tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist |
| overgeneralization | The phenomenon whereby children apply rules even when their application results in an error |
| phonemes | The smallest basic sound units |
| phonology | The study of the smallest sound units, called phonemes |
| prototypes | Typical, highly representative examples of a concept |
| semantics | The rules governing the meaning of words and sentences |
| syllogistic reasoning | Formal reasoning in which people draw a conclusion from a set of assumptions |
| syntax | The rules that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form sentences. |
| telegraphic speech | Sentences that sound as if they were part of a telegram, in which words not critical to the message are left out |
| thinking | The manipulation of mental representations of information |
| universal grammar | Noam Chomsky's theory that all the world's languages share a similar underlying structure |