1. Studying whether infants can distinguish one stimulus from another by measuring the length of time they attend to different stimuli
a. Robert Frantz made an important discovery that infants look at different things for different lengths of time. Frantz placed infants in a "looking chamber", which had two visual displays on the ceiling above the infant's head. The infant's eyes were viewed by looking through a peephole. If the infant was fixating on one of the displays, the experimenter could see the display's reflection in the infant's eyes. This arrangement allowed the experimenter to determine how long the infant looked at each display.
b. He found that infants only two days old look longer at patterned stimuli, such as faces and concentric circles, rather than at red, white, or yellow discs. Infants 2-3 weeks old preferred to look at patterns—a face, a piece of printed matter, or a bull's eye—longer than at red, yellow, or white discs
ii. Cattell and Horn's View (1970's)
1. Crystallized Intelligence
a. Ex: Tests of general information and word comprehension
2. Fluid Intelligence
a. Ex: verbal analogies, inductive reasoning, spatial orientation
iii. Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences
1. People have multiple intelligences and IQ tests measure only a few of these. Used information about the ways in which certain cognitive abilities
survive particular types of brain damage.
2. Linguistic Intelligence
a. The ability to think in words and use language to express meaning (occupations—authors, journalists, speakers)
3. Logico—Mathematical Intelligence
a. The ability to carry out mathematical operations (occupations—scientists, engineers, accountants)
4. Musical intelligence
a. A sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone (occupations—composers, musicians, and sensitive listeners)
5. Spatial
intelligence
a. The ability to think three-dimensionally (occupations—architects, artists, sailors)
6. Bodily—Kinesthetic intelligence
a. The ability to manipulate objects and be physically adept (occupations—surgeons, craftspeople, dancers, athletes)
7. Interpersonal intelligence
a. The ability to understand and effectively interact with others (occupations—successful teachers, mental health professionals)
8. Intrapersonal intelligence
a. The ability to understand
oneself (occupations—theologians, psychologists)
9. Naturalistic intelligence
a. The ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systems (occupations—farmers, botanists, ecologists, landscapers)
iv. Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
1. Contextual Intelligence (Practical)
a. Intelligent behavior varies from 1 culture, context, or time period to another
b. Adapting to the environment you're in—"street smarts"
2. Experiential Intelligence
(Creative)
a. Intelligence differs based on experience with task
i. Quick solutions to novel tasks and ability to efficiently process familiar tasks to leave resources for creativity
b. Componential Intelligence (Analytical)
i. Information processing strategies used
i. Kholberg's Moral reasoning theory:
1. Preconventional Level:
a. Heteronomous Morality—Obedience Oriented
i. Children obey because adults tell them to obey.
People base their moral decisions on fear of punishment; It's not bad if there's no punishment
b. Instrumental Orientation—Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange
i. Individuals pursue their own interests but let others do the same. What is right involves equal exchange; You scratch my back and I'll scratch yours.
2. Conventional Level
a. Mutual interpersonal expectations—Relationships, and interpersonal conformity
i. Individuals value trust, caring and loyalty
to others as a basis of moral judgements; Actions based on being seen as "good" in eyes of self or others
b. Social system morality
i. Moral judgements are based on understanding and the social order, law, justice, and duty
ii. "if one person gets away with it, everyone will"
3. Postconventional Level
a. Social contract—or Utility and individual rights
i. Individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergrid or transcend the law.
ii. "the greatest good
for the greatest number"
b. Universal Ethical principles
i. The person has developed moral judgements that are based on universal human rights. When faced with a dilemma between law and conscience, a personal, individualized conscience is followed.
ii. If laws violate self-chosen ethical principles (pursuit of liberty), follow principles